A Communicative Grammar of English

A Communicative Grammar of English

Third Edition

Geoffrey Leech and Jan Svartvik

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First published 1975 by Pearson Education Limited

Second edition 1994

Third edition first published in Great Britain 2002

Published 2013 by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Copyright © 2002, Taylor & Francis.

The rights of Geoffrey Leech and Jan Svartvik to be identified as Authors of this Work has been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

ISBN 13: 978-0-582-50633-6 (pbk)

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A CIP catalogue record for this book can be obtained from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

A CIP catalog record for this book can be obtained from the Library of Congress

Typeset in 9/12pt Stone Serif by Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong

Contents

Preface

Symbols

Part One: A guide to the use of this book

Introduction

The way this book is organized

Varieties of English

Grammar in spoken and written English

Intonation

A note on phonetic symbols

Geographical and national varieties

Levels of usage: formal and informal English

Part Two: Grammar in use

Section A Concepts

Referring to objects, substances and materials

Concrete and abstract

Amount or quantity

Definite and indefinite meaning

Relations between ideas expressed by nouns

Restrictive and non-restrictive meaning

Time, tense and aspect

Present time

Past time

The progressive aspect

Future time

Summary

Time-when

Duration

Frequency

Place, direction and distance

Manner, means and instrument

Cause, reason and purpose

Condition and contrast

Degree

Role, standard and point of view

Comparison

Addition, exception and restriction

Subject matter: about and on

Section B Information, reality and belief

Statements, questions and responses

Omission of information

Reported statements and questions

Denial and affirmation

Agreement and disagreement

Fact, hypothesis and neutrality

Degrees of likelihood

Attitudes to truth

Section C Mood, emotion and attitude

Emotive emphasis in speech

Describing emotions

Volition

Permission and obligation

Influencing people

Friendly communications

Vocatives

Section D Meanings in connected discourse

Linking signals

Linking clauses and sentences

‘General purpose’ links

Cross-reference and omission

Presenting and focusing information

Order and emphasis

Part Three: A–Z in English grammar

Adjective patterns

Adjectives

Adjective or adverb?

Adjectives as heads

Adverbials

Adverbs

Apposition

Articles

Auxiliary verbs

Clauses

Cleft sentences

Commands

Comment clauses

Comparison

Complements

Concord

Coordination

Demonstratives

Determiners

Exclamations

Gender

Genitive

Interrogatives

Introductory it

Introductory there

Irregular verbs

Main verbs

Nationality words

Negation

Nominal clauses

Noun phrases

Number

Numerals

Objects

Operators

Passives

Personal and reflexive pronouns

Phrasal and prepositional verbs

Plurals

Postmodifiers

Premodifiers

Prepositional phrases

Prepositions and prepositional adverbs

Pronouns

Pronunciation of endings

Proper nouns and names

Quantifiers

Questions

Reciprocal pronouns

Relative clauses

Sentences

Some-words and any-words

Spelling changes

Subjects

Subjunctives

Subordination

Verb patterns

Verb phrases

Word-classes

Zero

Index

Based on

A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language

by Randolph Quirk,

Sidney Greenbaum,

Geoffrey Leech,

Jan Svartvik

Preface

A Communicative Grammar of English has established itself as both an authoritative and an innovative grammar. This thoroughly revised third edition gives increased emphasis on spoken English and makes more use of real examples based on corpus data. We have also tried to make the presentation more ‘pedagogical’ by giving simpler explanations, in providing more corpus examples (from Longman Corpus Network), and in making clear the distinctions between major and minor points.

Another innovation is the accompanying new Workbook by Edward Woods and Rudy Coppieters which will help students to ‘internalize’ the contents of grammar.

The basic design of the book remains the same as in the second edition, including the numbering of sections. The book is divided into three parts:

•  Part One: A guide to the use of this book

•  Part Two: Grammar in use

•  Part Three: A–Z in English grammar

This book is partly based on A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (Longman, 1985) by Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech and Jan Svartvik. However, it cannot be regarded as a condensed version of that larger work since its arrangement is totally different, and it contains additional material (especially in Part Two). On the other hand, the structural or formal aspect of grammar is less comprehensively treated here than in the larger work and also in A Student’s Grammar of the English Language (Longman, 1990) by Sidney Greenbaum and Randolph Quirk. We have therefore added to each entry in Part Three a reference to the most relevant sections of A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, so that, if required, a more detailed treatment of the topic can be consulted in that book. A more recent grammar using the same general framework, which can be consulted especially on matters of frequency, language variety and conversational grammar, is Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (1999) by Douglas Biber, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad and Edward Finegan.

We have attempted to simplify grammatical terminology and classifications as far as possible, so that the terms and categories treated in Part Three do not in every case correspond to the same terms in the Comprehensive Grammar.

Lancaster and Lund, August 2002

Symbols

( )

Items in round brackets are optional, i.e. the sentence is acceptable also if the bracketed words are left out:

Susan said she would call back but she didn’t (do so).

can be read either as

… but she didn’t do so or as … but she didn’t

Round brackets are also used for cross-references:

‘(see 408)’ means ‘see section 408 in this grammar’

‘(see CGEL 14.2)’ means ‘see A Comphrehensive Grammar of the English Language, section 14.2’

[ ]

Numerals in square brackets appear after examples when required for cross-reference:

As in sentence [5] …

Square brackets are also used to separate items, such as two adverbials:

We go [to bed] [early].

/

A slash indicates a choice of items, such as between some- or any-pronouns:

Did somebody/anybody phone?

{ }

Braces indicate a range of choices, such as between different relative constructions:

Image

~

A tilde indicates ‘roughly equivalent’, e.g. active and passive:

They published this paper in 1999.

~ This paper was published in 1999.

A tilde is also used between related forms, e.g. verb forms or comparative forms:

give ~ gave ~ given

big ~ bigger ~ biggest

< >

Angle brackets are used around variety labels (see 44–55):

<formal>, <informal>    <spoken>, <written>

<BrE>, <AmE>             <polite>, <familiar>

*

An asterisk signifies that what follows is not ‘good English’, i.e. it is unacceptable usage:

We can say Ann’s car, BUT NOT *the car of Ann

//

Slashes enclose phonemic transcriptions (see 43):

lean /li:n/     leant /lent/

'

A stress mark is placed before the stressed syllable of a word:

'over                     (stress on the first syllable)

temp'tation          (stress on the second syllable)

transfor'mation   (stress on the third syllable)

Underlined syllables carry the nuclear tone (see 38):

How could you that?

`

A falling tone: yès

´

A rising tone: yés

ˇ

A fall-rise tone: yěs

|

A single vertical bar indicates tone unit boundary (see 37):

| I àlmost phoned them úp and said | Come a bit_làter |

A double bar separates <BrE> from <AmE> usage:

spelling: colourcolor pronunciation: Image

S

  subject (see 705)

V

  verb phrase (see 735)

O

  object (see 608)

C

  complement (see 508)

A

  adverbial (see 449)

SVO

subject + verb phrase + object

SVC

subject + verb phrase + complement

SVA

subject + verb phrase + adverbial

PART ONE

A guide to the use of this book

Introduction

  1   It is sometimes argued that grammar is not important in a communicative approach to language. However, we take the view that communicative competence rests on a set of composite skills, one of which is grammatical:

Communicative competence is composed minimally of grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, and communication strategies, or what we will refer to as strategic competence. There is no strong theoretical or empirical motivation for the view that grammatical competence is any more or less crucial to successful communication than is sociolinguistic competence or strategic competence. The primary goal of a communicative approach must be to facilitate the integration of these types of knowledge for the learner, an outcome that is not likely to result from overemphasis on one form of competence over the others throughout a second language programme. (Michael Canale and Merrill Swain, ‘Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching and Testing’, Applied Linguistics 1: 27, 1980)

There are several reasons for emphasizing the communication aspects of learning English grammar as we do in this book. Here, let us consider four reasons.

A new angle

  2   The type of student we have had in mind when writing this book is fairly advanced, for example a first-year student at a university or college of education. Often, such students already have grounding in the grammar of the language after several years of school English. Yet their proficiency in actually using the language may be disappointing. This, we believe, may be partly due to ‘grammar fatigue’.

The student may therefore benefit from looking at grammar from another angle, where grammatical structures are systematically related to meanings, uses and situations, as we attempt to do in Part Two: ‘Grammar in use’. In this way we expect students to improve and extend their range of competence and their use of communication strategies in the language. In Part Three, called ‘A-Z in English grammar’, the book also supplies essential information about grammatical forms and structures, and can therefore be used as a general reference book or source book on English grammar. There we give references to relevant parts of A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, a standard grammatical description of English, where the advanced student can find extra information on topics which cannot be fully covered in this book.

A better organization

  3   The conventional way of presenting English grammar in terms of structure also has a certain drawback in itself. For example, in such a grammar, notions of time may be dealt with in as many as four different places: under the tense of the verb, under time adverbs, under prepositional phrases denoting time, and under temporal conjunctions and clauses. The student who is primarily interested in making use of the language rather than in learning about its structure (and this is true for the majority of foreign students) is not likely to find such an arrangement particularly helpful. In A Communicative Grammar of English, the central part deals with grammar in use, which makes it possible to bring similar notions, such as those involving time, together in one place.

Spoken English

  4   An important element in the communicative approach is the student’s ability to use and understand the spoken language. This emphasis on speech is sometimes misunderstood, so that the communicative method is taken to imply focus on the spoken language. We do not share this view: ‘communication’ means communication in both speech and writing. Yet, since traditional grammar tends to concentrate on written language, we think it is important for a communicative grammar to describe and exemplify both types of language use. (On grammar in spoken and written English, see Sections 17–32.)

Corpus data

  5   The examples given in grammars have often been made up by grammarians rather than taken from real language in actual use. A made-up example may well serve to illustrate a particular grammatical point, but it can appear stilted or ‘wooden’, distancing the learning of grammar from real live usage. This is no doubt one reason why grammar is often considered to be a less important part of language in the communicative approach. We take the view that the grammar of a language is indeed of central concern to students, since it describes what makes language tick – how it can carry the meanings we want to communicate. In this revised edition of our grammar we have illustrated grammatical statements with the help of hundreds of authentic examples from English language corpora, especially Longman Corpus Network. Corpora stored on computers provide access to many millions of words of spoken and written material in modern English. However, the corpus examples sometimes have to be simplified by the omission of distracting material. There can also be an advantage – for example, where precise contrasts have to be clearly indicated – in making use of made-up examples. We believe that in this book we have achieved the right balance between the use of authentic examples and the use of the clearest illustrative material.

The way this book is organized

  6   The book is divided into three parts as follows:

Part One: A guide to the use of this book (sections 1–56)

Part Two: Grammar in use (sections 57–434)

Part Three: A–Z in English grammar (sections 435–747)

Note that the book is organized in consecutively numbered sections (1–747), for ease of reference. At the end of the book, there is a detailed index which gives section numbers, rather than pages, as the most convenient means of looking up what you want.

We now give a brief overview of these three parts and what they contain.

Part One: A guide to the use of this book (sections 1–56)

  7   In this first part, we try to explain the design of the book, and the apparatus of information you need in order to understand it, and to find what you need.

One of the major things you will need is a guide to the different labels we use for different kinds or varieties of English (44–56). Where English gives us a choice of grammatical forms or structures for a given purpose, the different structures available are often not equivalent, since they belong to different ‘styles’ or ‘varieties’. An important part of communicative grammar is knowing the appropriate choice according to the situation you are in. For example, if you are communicating in speech your choices of grammar will often be different from the choices you make in writing. And when you are writing, if you are communicating in an informal situation, your choices will often be different from those that you choose in a formal situation. Throughout the book, therefore, we make use of ‘variety labels’ such as <spoken>, <written>, <informal> and <formal>, whenever we want to make a point about the appropriateness of a grammatical form for this or that situation. Remember that the angle brackets <…>, whenever they occur in this book, signal this kind of appropriate choice.

One particular purpose of Part One is to explain and illustrate the symbols used in representing features of the spoken language. Most of us are used to the conventions for representing the written language on paper – the use of spelling, punctuation, and so on. But how do we capture on paper the nature of spoken language? For this, not only do we need symbols representing vowels and consonants in speech (see 43) but, more important, we need symbols for representing features of stress and intonation, which are closely integrated with the grammar of spoken language (33–42). H. E. Palmer in his well-known pioneering A Grammar of Spoken English (first edition 1924) went to the lengths of presenting the grammar of speech through phonetic transcription of all features of the language. This brave effort was a valuable corrective to the assumption – all too common in those times – that grammar was synonymous with the study of the written language. But it increased the difficulty of using the book enormously, and paradoxically impeded the thing it was intended to promote – a widespread appreciation of the features of spoken language. Our position, in contrast to this, is that we need to reduce to a minimum the use of special symbols which students need to understand the facts of grammar. This means using phonetic symbols and symbols of stress and intonation rather sparingly, and in any case, only where they are important to understanding the use of grammar in the spoken language.

Part Two: Grammar in use (57–434)

  8   Part Two is the central part and largest part of the grammar. It is also the part which justifies our title ‘Communicative Grammar’, by presenting grammar through the eyes of the communicator. The question it tries to answer, in as much detail as space permits, is: Given that I want to communicate certain meanings in certain situations or contexts, which grammatical forms and structures can I use?

Communication is not a simple process. It is helpful, for our purpose, to think of four circles, one inside another, representing different kinds of meaning function and the different ways of organizing such functions. The four circles in the figure below correspond to Sections AD in Part Two.

images

The right-hand column, stating ‘types of formal unit’, should not be interpreted too strictly. It is useful to see the relation between the different layers of meaning and a hierarchy of grammatical units, but there is much overlap of the types of unit, and other factors are important. For example, intonation has an important role in the expression of meaning in Sections B, C and D.

Section A: Concepts (57–239)

  9   The first circle is that of notional or conceptual meaning. Here we find the basic meaning categories of grammar: for example, ‘number’, ‘definite meaning’, ‘amount’, ‘time’, ‘manner’, ‘degree’. Such terms point to aspects of our experience of the world. The structural units we deal with here are smaller than the sentence, i.e. words, phrases, and clauses.

Section B: Information, reality and belief (240–97)

  10   The second circle represents logical aspects of communication. Here we make use of the categories of Section A, but we judge them and respond to them in the light of concepts such as truth and falsehood, which we depend on in giving and receiving information. Such categories as ‘statements, questions and responses’ belong here. So do ‘affirmation and denial’, ‘possibility’ and ‘certainty’. The formal unit we are chiefly concerned with is the sentence.

Section C: Mood, emotion and attitude (298–350)

  11   The third circle involves the social dimension of communication, relating grammar to the attitudes and behaviour of speaker and hearer. At the speaker’s end, language expresses attitudes and emotions, and is a means of carrying out social goals. At the receiving end, language can control or influence the actions and attitudes of the hearer. This ‘controlling’ aspect of communication is performed through such speech acts as commanding, requesting, advising, promising. Although the logical aspect of meaning (Section B) is made use of, it is extended, or perhaps even ‘distorted’ to perform different kinds of social function. Thus, on a logical level, a question is a means of eliciting information – of determining what is true and what is false. But questions can be adapted ‘pragmatically’ for the purpose of making an offer:

Would you like some more?

or making a suggestion:

Why don’t you come with me?

or expressing a strong feeling:

Wasn’t it a marvellous play?

The unit of language we are mainly dealing with here is the utterance, which may or may not correspond to a sentence in length.

Section D: Meanings in connected discourse (351–434)

  12   The fourth circle deals with the organization of communication. The question here is How shall we arrange our thoughts?, i.e. in what order shall we put them, and how shall we bind them together, in order to communicate in the most appropriate or effective way? Grammar is flexible enough to offer a considerable choice in these matters. This is the aspect of the use of grammar which takes account of ‘context’ in the sense of ‘the preceding or following aspects of the discourse’. Looking at sentences in isolation is not sufficient: the unit here, therefore, is the text or discourse.

The four circles of the diagram represent a rational progression from the most limited and detailed aspect of meaning to the most inclusive. This design underlies Part Two, but we have not stuck to it too rigidly. To have done so would often have meant inconvenient repetitions of material in different sections. In dealing with emotive meaning (Section C), for example, we have moved directly from the expression of emotion to the description of emotion, even though it might be argued that the description of emotion belongs more naturally to conceptual meaning (Section A). The overriding consideration, in arranging the material, is that of dealing with related communicative choices together.

Part Three: A–Z in English grammar (435–747)

  13   If Part Two is the main ‘communicative’ part of the book, Part Three is complementary to it. We need to know not only the communicative choices which grammar offers (Part Two), but the structural grammatical choices through which communication is channelled (Part Three). The two sets of choices are to a large extent independent of one another, and so are dealt with separately. The entries in Part Three are arranged alphabetically, for ease of access, and will be particularly useful in enabling students to find detailed explanations of grammatical terms (e.g. ‘relative clause’, ‘phrasal verb’) whose meaning may be unclear to them.

Cross-references and index

  14   The reference apparatus is a very important part of every grammar book. In this grammar, with its innovative arrangement, it is essential to have numerous cross-references, and a comprehensive index. We have aimed to provide both. The index distinguishes between different kinds of references:

References to individual words and phrases, e.g. proper, because of

References to grammatical terms, e.g. PROPER NOUN

References to functions or meanings, e.g. proportion, female person

References to language varieties, e.g. <speech>, <American English>

In this way, multiple access is given to the information contained within the grammar.

Varieties of English

  15   To use a language properly, we of course have to know the grammatical forms and structures and their meanings. These are the subjects of Parts Two and Three. But we also have to know what forms of language are appropriate for given situations, and for this purpose you will find in both those parts ‘variety labels’ such as <spoken>, <written>, <AmE> for American English, <BrE> for British English, <formal>, <informal>, <polite>, <familiar>. These labels are reminders that the English language is, in a sense, not a single language, but many languages, each belonging to a particular geographical area or to a particular kind of situation. The English used in formal written communication is in some ways different from the English used in informal conversation; the English used in the United States is somewhat different from the English used in Great Britain, in Australia, and so on. Obviously, in a general book of this kind we must ignore many less important differences. The purpose of this section of Part One is to explain briefly what is meant by the variety labels that you will meet, and to illustrate the varieties they refer to. If you wish to follow up a particular variety in detail, you may do so by means of the entries for variety labels in the index.

The ‘common core’

  16   Luckily for the learner, many of the features of English are found in all, or nearly all, varieties. We say that general features of this kind belong to the common core of the language. Take, for instance, the three words children, offspring and kids. Children is a ‘common core’ term; offspring is liable to occur in a rather formal situation (and is used of animals as well as human beings); kids is likely to occur in an informal or familiar situation. It is safest, when in doubt, to use the ‘common core’ term: thus children is the word you would want to use most often. But part of knowing English is knowing in what circumstances it would be possible to use offspring or kids instead of children. Let us take another example, this time from grammar:

Feeling tired, she went to bed early. <rather formal>

[1]

As she felt tired, she went to bed early.

[2]

She felt tired, so she went to bed early. <rather informal>

[3]

Sentence [2] is a ‘common core’ construction. It could, for example, be used either in speech or in writing. Sentence [1] is rather formal, and typical of written language. Sentence [3] is rather informal, and is likely to occur in relaxed conversation. In this book, you can assume that features of English given no variety label belong to the ‘common core’.

Grammar in spoken and written English

Different transmission systems

  17   English, like other languages, makes use of two channels: speech and writing. They have different transmission systems. Speech is transmitted by sound-waves, originated in speaking and received in hearing. Writing is transmitted by letters and other visible marks, produced in writing and received in reading. Good, all-round communicative competence involves all four skills:

speaking and writing (production)

hearing and reading (reception)

Spoken and written English do not have different grammars, but the shared English grammar is used differently on the two channels. For the benefit of those who want to acquire good, all-round communicative competence we will therefore indicate in this book many such differences in the use of English grammar.

What is relevant to this book is how the different systems affect the grammar of spoken and written English. We treat the two channels as of equal importance. But sometimes, when we give intonation marks (see 33) or present examples of dialogue, it will be clear that we are thinking of spoken English.

Transitory speech and permanent writing

  18   Normal speech is processed in real time and is transitory, leaving no trace other than what we may remember. Our memory being what it is, this is often limited to just the gist of a conversation or some particularly interesting points in a lecture. Writing, on the other hand, takes longer to produce and can be read not just once but many times. Writing leaves a permanent record. Moreover, writing that is made public in some way, such as in printed books and journals, leaves a record which can be read by millions of contemporary readers, and also by later generations.

Such differences between the two channels affect our language use in several ways. One is that spoken communication requires fast, almost instantaneous production and understanding. On the other hand, when we write, we usually have time to revise, check and rewrite what we have written. Likewise, when we receive a piece of writing we can read it, reread it, ponder over it, and discuss it.

  19   In spontaneous speech we have no time to prepare what to say in advance, but we must shape our message as we go along. Here is an example of such speech <in BrE> (a dash – indicates silent pause):

Well I had some people to lunch on Sunday and – they turned up half an hour early – (laughs) – I mean you know what [g] getting up Sunday’s like anyway and – I’d – I was behind in any case – and I’d said to them one o’clock – and I almost phoned them up and said come a bit later – and then I thought oh they’ve probably left by now – so I didn’t – and – twelve thirty – now that can’t be them – and it was – and they’d they’d left plenty of time for all their connections and they got all their connections at once – and it was annoying cos they came with this – child – you know who was running all over the place and they kept coming in and chatting to me and I couldn’t get on with things and I I get really erm – you know when when I’m trying to cook – and people come and chat I I get terribly put off – can’t get on with things at all erm – and yet you feel terribly anti-social if you you do just stay in the kitchen anyway.

On the audio-tape, this recording sounds natural and is quite easy to follow. However, when transcribed as here in written form, it looks fragmented, rambling, unstructured and is rather difficult to read. In this short extract from a conversation, we can note several features typical of informal talk:

silent pauses (indicated by a dash –):

they’ve probably left by now – so I didn’t – and – twelve thirty – now that can’t be them – and it was – and

voice-filled pauses (indicated by erm) indicating hesitation:

and I I get really erm – you know when when I’m trying to cook

repetitions: I I, when when, they’d they’d, you you

false starts: the speaker may fail to complete a sentence, or lose track of the sentence and mix up one grammatical construction with another:

I mean you know what [g] getting up Sunday’s like anyway and – I’d – I was behind in any case

and I I get really erm – you know when when I’m trying to cook – and people come and chat I I get terribly put off

•  discourse markers: When we speak we often use small words or fixed phrases (like you know, you see, I mean, kind of, sort of, like, well, now) that indicate our involvement in the discourse, and how we want it to continue – or just to signal that we intend to go on talking. The opening well in the extract is a typical in this use of ‘signalling a new start’ (see 353). Another example is I mean in the second line of the extract.

short forms such as contractions of the negative not (didn’t) and verb forms (I’m, I’d, they’ve), and cos for because.

In the next sections we will discuss why such features are so common in speaking.

Interactive and non-interactive uses of English

  20   Spoken language is the most widely used form of language. Within spoken language there are many variations, but we will distinguish two main uses of spoken English. The first, and by far the most common use, is conversation with two or more participants taking their turns when talking to each other, either face-to-face or via some technical device such as a telephone or computer. For the foreign student of English, this is a particularly important type to learn because it is the most common everyday use of speech. Moreover, it cannot be prepared in advance: conversation is impromptu and spontaneous.

The second use of spoken English occurs with one person speaking at a time to an audience of people who do not talk back but just listen. We call this public speaking in contrast with conversation, which is private speaking. Conversation is typically interactive, and public speaking is less interactive, or even not interactive at all. Public speaking is intermediate between conversation and writing, in that a speech can be (and often is) prepared in advance in writing, and read aloud to an audience. In public speaking we include such spoken varieties as lectures, radio talks and TV news broadcasts. The figure below shows some of the different uses of English, and indicates that the relation between spoken and written English is more like a scale than a simple division. On the whole, the varieties of language towards the top of the diagram are more interactive than the varieties towards the bottom.

images

Cooperation in conversation

  21   In a conversation, the speaker can check if the listener has understood by asking ‘Do you see what I mean?’, and the listener can ask the speaker for clarification: ‘What did you mean by that?’, etc. In writing we have no such direct contact between writer and reader and, in writing made public (as in newspapers, periodicals and books), we may not even have any idea who will ever read what we write. This gives speaking an advantage in providing us with an opportunity for immediate feedback, to find out whether our message has been properly received, or is acceptable. This feedback can be verbal (yes, uhuh, I see, etc.) or non-verbal (a nod, raised eyebrows, etc.).

But, usually, a conversation is not just a matter of giving and receiving information. It is also, perhaps primarily, a form of social interaction, and participant cooperation is indeed a basic feature of conversation. There exists a give-and-take process which is manifested in several ways.

  22   One case of participant cooperation is turn-taking, which means sharing out the role of speaker in the conversation, as one speaker takes a turn, then another. In this extract from a <BrE> conversation, a young girl [A] is telling a female friend [B] about her recent very pleasant holidays in Spain (dash – indicates silent pause):

[A]

but it’s so nice and relaxed down there I mean compared with London I mean I I I I – I found myself – going into shops and people smiled at you and I – I was quite taken aback genuinely I mean I

[B]

m m

[A]

erm you know the feeling you you you you

[B]

yes one asks oneself if you’re putting on this deadpan face you know

[A]

yes

[B]

yes

[A]

and these people smile and you – well you don’t know how to react at first because it’s so strange

[B]

yes I felt that in Scotland – yes (laughs)

A smooth conversation is characterized by a general atmosphere of cooperation and harmony. Little expressions such as you know and I mean appeal for understanding and sympathy, and yes and m m express interest and support the speaker. Multiple repetitions, such as I I I I and you you you you, signal the girl’s excitement as she tries to keep the conversational ‘floor’ and tell her story.

  23   Cooperation is largely achieved by using discourse markers – variously called interactional signals, discourse particles, backchannels and inserts, which are a number of words and expressions typical of English spoken discourse. Below we list some such interactive expressions which are frequent in English conversation. We put them under three headings, indicating a scale from ‘only interactive functions’ (which are above all characteristics of conversation) to ‘also interactive functions’ (which are more grammatical and frequently used also in public speaking and writing; see 249):

Only interactive: ah, aha, gosh, hm, mhm, oh, quite, uhuh, yes, yeah, yup

Mainly interactive: I see, I mean, I think, no, please, OK, that’s OK, right, all right, that’s right, that’s all right, well, sure, you know, you see

Also interactive: absolutely, actually, anyway, certainly, honestly, indeed, in fact, maybe, obviously, of course, perhaps, probably, really

Most of these expressions are commonly used in conversations among native speakers, and it is therefore important for the foreign learner to be familiar with them and be able to use them quickly, and appropriately, in different situations. Interactive expressions may add little information, but they tell us something of the speakers’ attitude to their audience and to what they are saying.

Some grammatical features of spoken English

  24   Tag questions. A highly typical feature of speech is tag questions (see further 684). There are two main types:

Positive + negative: We’ve met before, haven’t we?

Negative + positive: We haven’t met before, have we?

Tag questions fit in nicely with the need for cooperation between speakers and the feature of turn-shift from one speaker to another. First the speaker asserts something (e.g. It was a couple of years ago), then invites the listener’s response (wasn’t it?), as in this example from the beginning of a conversation:

[A]

We’ve met before, haven’t we?

[B]

Yes, we certainly have. It was a couple of years ago, wasn’t it?

[A]

Oh yes, now I remember: at the Paris exhibition. How are you these days?

  25   Ellipsis. In some cases part of a sentence can be omitted, for example:

Hope you’re well.

~ I hope you’re well.

Want a drink?

~ Do you want a drink?

Better be careful.

~ You/We’d better be careful.

Sounds fine to me.

~ That sounds fine to me.

This type of omission, which is called initial ellipsis, is another characteristic of informal talk. It helps to create the sort of relaxed atmosphere that we try to achieve in a cooperative social situation.

  26   Coordination and subordination. Coordination (see 515) of clauses is a characteristic of speech:

Hurt yourself? Okay, just rub it a little bit and then it will be okay.

[1]

The and here expresses a condition, equivalent to if in a subclause (see 709):

If you just rub it … it will be okay.

However, it is wrong to suppose that speech avoids subordination. In fact, if-clauses (see 207) are generally more common in conversation than in written language:

Yeah but if you talk to Katie and Heather you will get a different story.

[2]

Another type of subclause more common in conversation is the that-clause (see 712), especially where the that itself is omitted (‘zero that’), as in [3]–[5]:

I don’t think you can do that.

[3]

I suppose I do.

[4]

I said you can have anything on the table, okay?

[5]

In [2] above we see that the coordinator (but in this case) occurs at the beginning of a sentence or turn, and links to something in a previous turn. This is again very characteristic of spoken dialogue:

A:

Horses love carrots yeah …

B:

And horses love apples too.

[6]

Again, in [6], the coordinator And comes at the beginning of a sentence and turn. This is very different from serious written language, where the use of a coordinator at the beginning of a sentence is often regarded as ‘bad grammar’, and is usually avoided. The coordinator in [6] is typical of speech, but in writing, it would be normal to make the coordinator a link between words and phrases rather than between clauses or sentences:

Horses love apples and carrots.

On the whole, coordination at word level and phrase level is much more common in writing, while coordination at clause level is more common in speech.

  27   Finite clauses. In written English we often use non-finite and verbless clauses (see 494) as adverbials and modifiers, as in this example:

When fit, a Labrador is an excellent retriever. <rather formal, written>

Such constructions are unlikely in <informal speech>, where finite clauses are preferred, as in

~ A Labrador is an excellent retriever if it’s fit.

~ If a Labrador’s fit, it makes an excellent retriever.

Here are some other pairs of examples:

Lunch finished, the guests retired to the lounge. <rather formal, written>

~ They all went into the lounge after lunch. <more informal, spoken>

Ben, knowing that his wife was expecting, started to take a course on baby care. <rather formal, written>

~ Ben got to know his wife was expecting, so he started to take a course on baby care. <informal, spoken>

Discovered almost by accident, this substance has revolutionized medicine. <rather formal, written>

~ This stuff – it was discovered almost by accident – it’s made a really big impact on medicine. <informal, spoken>

  28   Signposts. The grammar of spoken sentences is, in general, simpler and less strictly constructed than the grammar of written sentences. In <writing> we often indicate the structure of paragraphs by such signposts or linking signals (see 352) as

firstly, secondly, finally, hence, to conclude, to summarize, e.g., viz.

Such expressions would not be used in informal talk where they would sound rather stilted and give the impression of a prepared talk. In a <spontaneous talk> we are more likely to introduce new points by such expressions as

the first thing is, and so, in other words, all the same

For example:

well – you know – the first erthing that strikes me as odd about this whole business is – for example that …

  29   Contracted forms. When the auxiliary verbs do, have, be and some modal auxiliaries occur together with not, they can have either uncontracted or contracted forms (see 582):

do not ~ don’t

does not ~ doesn’t

did not ~ didn’t

have not ~ haven’t

has not ~ hasn’t

had not ~ hadn’t

are not ~ aren’t

is not ~ isn’t

could not ~ couldn’t

were not ~ weren’t

was not ~ wasn’t

should not ~ shouldn’t

Uncontracted (or full) forms are typical of <written, especially formal> English. The contracted forms are typical of <spoken> discourse, but they also occur in <informal writing>. In some cases there is more than one contracted form available:

I have not seen the film yet. <typical of writing>

I haven’t seen the film yet. <typical of speaking> OR

I’ve not seen the film yet. <also possible in speaking>

Later on in this book we will comment on other constructions that are used differently in <spoken, informal> and <written, formal> varieties, such as the subjunctive (see 706) and the passive (see 613).

Spelling v. pronunciation

  30   In <writing> we have to observe a number of spelling changes (see 700), when we add a suffix to a word, for example

replacing one letter by two, e.g. when adding -s:

they carry

BUT: she carries

a lady

BUT: several ladies

replacing two letters by one, e.g. when adding -ing:

they lie

BUT: they are lying

adding letters, e.g. when adding -s or -er:

one box

BUT: two boxes

they pass

BUT: she passes

a big spender

BUT: bigger spenders, the biggest spenders

dropping letters, e.g. when adding -ing or -ed:

love

BUT: loving, loved

The reason why written English has such spelling rules is often to indicate the correct pronunciation of the inflected forms with suffixes. Note, for example, the following contrasts (for phonetic symbols, see 43):

hope image

~ hoping image

~ hoped image

hop image

~ hopping image

~ hopped image

There are some spelling differences between British and American English: centrecenter, levelledleveled, etc. (see 703). There are some differences in pronunciation, too, but these are independent of the spelling differences, for example /'kΛlə || 'kΛlər/ for colourcolor.

In nouns with regular plural, the written distinction between the genitive plural (boys’), the genitive singular (boy’s), and also the common gender plural (boys) does not exist in the pronunciation /bɒIZ/ (see 664).

Written representation of speech

  31   In some writing representing spoken English, for example comic strips and popular fiction, we can meet the form got to or even gotta, pronounced image, corresponding to <standard> have got to:

You gotta be careful with what you say. <non-standard in writing>

You’ve got to be careful with what you say. <standard in writing>

Similarly, gonna, pronounced image is sometimes the written form for <standard written> (be) going to, as in

What (are) you gonna do now? <non-standard in writing>

What are you going to do now? <standard in writing>

These non-standard written representations of the spoken form reflect a typical phonetic reduction of vowels and omission of consonants in everyday speech. However, the written language rarely captures these simplifications. For example, in

They could have gone early

could have is commonly pronounced /'kʊdə/, but even in representations of the most casual speech, the non-standard written form coulda rarely occurs.

Punctuation v. chunking

  32   We become familiar with the structure of written language through normal education, but the way spoken language is structured is more difficult to observe and to study. In writing we work with sentences. But it is often hard to divide a spoken conversation (such as the extract from a conversation in 19) into separate sentences. Part of the reason is that the speakers rely more on the hearers’ understanding of context, and on their ability to interrupt if they fail to understand. Also, in ‘getting across’ their message, speakers are able to rely on features of intonation which tell us a great deal that cannot be rendered in written punctuation.

Punctuation in writing. The written sentence is easily recognizable, since it begins with a capital letter and ends with certain punctuation marks (.? !). Within the sentence we can indicate clause and phrase boundaries by commas (,), dashes (–), colons (:), and semi-colons (;).

Chunking in speaking. Punctuation marks cannot be pronounced or heard but, in speaking, we use other devices to indicate what belongs together in an utterance. A piece of spoken information is packaged in tone units (see 37). They are usually shorter than a sentence, averaging about 4–5 words, and have a separate intonation contour. The most heavily accented word in a tone unit contains a focal point called nucleus (see 36). There is no exact match between punctuation in writing and tone units in speaking. Speech is more variable in its structuring than writing. Chunking speech into tone units depends on such things as the speed of speaking, the emphasis given to a particular part of a message, and the length of grammatical units (see further 33, 397).

Sentence adverbials (such as evidently, naturally, obviously, see 461) are often separated from what follows by a tone unit boundary in speech (indicated here by a vertical bar ‘|’) or a comma in writing. Compare:

| Obviously | they expected us to be on time | <spoken>

Obviously, they expected us to be on time. <written>

Non-restrictive apposition (see 471) is usually set off by a separate tone unit in speaking, and by commas in writing:

| Dr Johnson | a neighbour of ours | is moving to Canada | <spoken>

Dr Johnson, a neighbour of ours, is moving to Canada. <written>

Comment clauses are often marked off from other clauses, by having a separate tone unit in speech and commas in writing (see further 499): ,

| What’ s more | we’d lost all we had | <spoken>

Moreover, we had lost all we had. <written>

As a general comment, we may note that features marked as <informal> in this book are more likely to occur in <speech>. On the other hand, <formal> features are more likely to occur in <writing> (see further 45).

Intonation

  33   You will need some knowledge of English intonation patterns if you are to understand English grammar more fully. This is because features of intonation are important for signalling grammatical distinctions, such as that between statements and questions. For example, a sentence like They are leaving can be a statement when said with falling intonation, but a question with rising intonation:

| They are lèaving | [statement with falling tone]

| They are léaving | [question with rising tone]

Here we concentrate on explaining those features of stress and intonation which play a significant role in grammar, and which therefore need to be discussed and symbolized in this book. The features we want to explain in the following sections are these:

Stress, symbolized by a stress mark ′(see 34):

′over

stress on the first syllable

an′alysis

stress on the second syllable

transfor′mation

stress on the third syllable

Tone units with their boundaries marked by a vertical bar | (see 37):

| The task seemed difficult |

Nucleus, i.e. the focal point of a tone unit, is symbolized by underlining the syllable carrying the nucleus (see further 36):

| The task seemed image

Tones are falling, rising or combinations of rising and falling. In our grammar the most important are these three (see further 38):

A falling tone is marked:

òbviously

A rising tone is marked:

óbviously

A fall-rise tone is marked:

image

Stress

  34   The rhythm of English is based on stress. In connected speech, we feel the rhythm of the language in the sequence of stressed syllables. Between one stressed syllable and another there may occur one or more unstressed syllables. The stressed syllables in these examples are preceded by the stress mark ', and the unstressed syllables are unmarked:

I′ll 'ring you on the 'way to the 'airport.

It went 'off 'smoothly that 'long 'meeting of the ex'ecutive com'mittee.

This means that the syllables below printed in bold are stressed:

I’ll ring you on the way to the air port.

It went off smoothly that long meeting of the executive committee.

The normal rules for placing stress are as follows. The syllables which are stressed are:

a one-syllable word which belongs to one of the major word-classes (see 744), i.e. nouns (way), verbs (ring), adjectives (long), adverbs (off).

the accented syllables of words of more than one syllable of major word-classes, e.g. 'smoothly, 'airport, com'mittee.

The syllables which are unstressed are:

a word belonging to one of the minor word-classes (see 745), e.g. prepositions (to), pronouns (it), articles (the).

the unaccented syllables of words of more than one syllable, e.g. 'smoothly, 'airport, com'mittee.

  35   There is no simple rule for which syllable is accented in a word which consists of more than one syllable. As we see above, accent varies from word to word, so that the accent falls on the first syllable of 'airport, but on the second syllable of com'mittee, and on the third syllable of transform'ation. The placing of stress is also variable according to sentence context, emphasis, speed of utterance, etc., and so the rules above are not without exceptions.

One point to notice is that a prepositional adverb (see 660) belongs to a major word-class, and is therefore stressed, whereas a one-syllable preposition is usually unstressed. Contrast:

'This 'bed has 'not been 'slept in. (in = preposition)

The 'injured 'man was 'carried 'in. (in = prepositional adverb)

The same contrast is sometimes seen between the particle of a prepositional verb (see 632) and the particle of a phrasal verb (see 630):

She’s re'lying on our 'help. (rely on = prepositional verb)

She’s 'putting 'on a 'new 'play. (put on = phrasal verb)

But the particle may also be unstressed:

'Make up your image

In the examples in this book, stress will be marked only where it is necessary for the point illustrated.

The nucleus

  36   Not all stressed syllables are of equal importance. Some stressed syllables have greater prominence than others, and form the nucleus, or focal point, of an intonation pattern. We may describe a nucleus as a strongly stressed syllable which marks a major change of pitch direction, i.e. where the pitch goes up or down. Here is an example to indicate pitch direction:

She’s going to the States.

The change of pitch on the nucleus is indicated by an arrow:

images

In this example, the nucleus marks a fall in pitch towards the end of the sentence. (The step-up in pitch before the nucleus States is something which will not concern us here.) As a nucleus is always stressed, there is no need to put a stress mark before it. Often in our examples, we simply indicate the nucleus by underlining without indicating the other stressed syllables:

She’s going to the States

Tone units

  37   The basic unit of intonation in English is the tone unit. (Other names you may meet are intonation unit, information unit, and chunk.) A tone unit is a stretch of speech which contains one nucleus. It may also contain other stressed syllables, normally preceding the nucleus. The boundaries of a tone unit are marked by a vertical bar |:

| She’s going to the States |

In this example, the tone unit has the length of a whole sentence. But a sentence often contains more than one tone unit. The number of tone units depends on the length of the sentence, and the degree of emphasis given to various parts of it. This sentence

This department needs a new chairperson

would normally have one tone unit:

| This department needs a new chairperson

But it might be pronounced with two tone units:

| This department | needs a new chairperson |

The additional nucleus on this here expresses an emphasis on 'this department in contrast to other departments. The following sentence might be pronounced with either one or two or three tone units, as indicated:

| This is the kind of pressure that it’s very difficult to resist. |

| This is the kind of pressure | that it’s very difficult to resist. |

| This is the kind | of pressure | that it’s very difficult to resist. |

In general, we include tone unit boundaries in our examples only where they serve an illustrative purpose. Usually, we omit them.

Tones

  38   By tone we mean the type of pitch change which takes place on the nucleus. The three most important tones in English, and the only ones we need distinguish here, are

images

These sentences can also be represented in the following way:

images

Here are two examples of the different tones in sequences of tone units:

| It’s not like a lecture on Cháucer | or Éliot | or something of thàt images |

| Our chair is very stròngly of the images | that we àll ought to go on téaching | to the end of tèrm. |

The tone of a nucleus determines the pitch of the rest of the tone unit following it:

After a falling tone, the rest of the tone unit is at a low pitch:

(Ann is getting a new job,) | but she hasn’t tòld me about it. |

images

After a rising tone, the rest of the tone unit moves in an upward pitch direction:

(Ann is getting a new job.) | Has she tóld you about it? |

images

The fall-rise tone consists of a fall in pitch followed by a rise. If the nucleus is the last syllable of the tone unit, the fall and rise both take place on one syllable – the nuclear syllable. Otherwise, the rise occurs in the remainder of the tone unit. Compare the following examples:

images

We symbolise these three tones as follows:

| but it wasn’t his fǎult. |

| but he said he was sǒrry. |

| but he didn’t mèan to dó it. |

Where the rise of the fall-rise extends to a stressed syllable after the nucleus, as in the last example, we signal the fall-rise tone by placing a fall on the nucleus and a rise on the later stressed syllable. This will make it easier for you to follow the intonation contour when you read the examples.

The meanings of tones

  39   The meanings of the tones are difficult to specify in general terms. Roughly speaking, the falling tone expresses ‘certainty’, ‘completeness’, ‘independence’. Thus a straightforward statement normally ends with a failing tone, since it asserts a fact of which the speaker is certain. It has an air of finality:

| In this lecture I want to enlarge on the relation between grammar and lèxis. |

  40   A rising tone, on the other hand, expresses ‘uncertainty’ or ‘incompleteness’ or ‘dependence’.

A yes-no question (see 682) usually has a rising tone, because the speakers are uncertain of the truth of what they are asking about:

| Can I hélp you? |

Because the typical tone heard in a yes-no question is a rising tone, this intonation is often referred to as ‘question-intonation’. However, most wh-questions have a falling tone (see 683). Compare the tones in these two questions:

| Don’t you image working here? |

[yes-no question]

| Why are you lèaving? |

[wh-question]

A question put in the form of a grammatical statement depends in speech on a question-intonation with a rising tone (see 244, 696):

| You got home sáfely then? |

Making a new start in the train of thought (see 353) often has a rising intonation:

| Wéll | what do you suggest we do nòw? |

Parenthetical and subsidiary information in a statement is also often spoken with a rising tone. The reason is that this information is incomplete and dependent for its full understanding on the main assertion:

| If you image | we can have dinner at mỳ place tonight. |

Encouraging or <polite> denials, commands, invitations, greetings, farewells, etc. are generally spoken with a rising tone:

[A]

| Are you sy? |

[B]

| . | (‘Please interrupt me if you wish’) ‘Do sit dówn. |

Here a falling tone (Nò), which indicates finality, would sound <impolite>.

  41   A fall-rise tone combines the falling tone’s meaning of ‘assertion, certainty’ with the rising tone’s meaning of ‘dependence, incompleteness’. At the end of a sentence, it often conveys a feeling of reservation. It asserts something, and at the same time suggests that there is something else to be said. There is often an implied contrast:

| That’s not mỳ image | (‘it must be somebody else’s’)

[A]

| Do you like póp-music? |

[B]

| Sǒmetimes, | (‘but not in general’)

[A]

| Are you búsy? |

[B]

| Not rěally. | (‘Well, I am, but not so busy that I can’t talk to you’)

At the beginning or in the middle of a sentence, the fall-rise tone is a more forceful alternative to the rising tone, expressing the assertion of one point, together with the implication that another point is to follow:

| Mòst of the image | we stayed on the bèach. |

| Most yǒung people | take plenty of èxercise. |

| He’s not a relǎxed lecturer | but he’s a image lecturer. |

A meaning which can be expressed by intonation may have to be expressed by a different grammatical construction in writing (see 496). Compare:

| You don’t see a fox every dǎy. | <speech>

It is not every day that one sees a fox. <writing>

In both cases the implication is: ‘it happens quite rarely’.

Conversation in transcription

  42   After this brief survey of some basic features of spoken English and how intonation is represented in written transcription, it is time for an application of the system to a longer stretch of text than we have been able to offer in the isolated examples above. So, here again is the vivid account of the Sunday lunch (given in 19), but now with the intonation indicated as follows:

Tone units: To highlight the chunking feature of speech, there is one tone unit per line, with | marking the end of each tone unit.

Tones: There are three tone types: falling tone (), rising tone (), fall-rise tone ().

Pauses are indicated by a dash (–).

| Well I had some people to lunch on Sùnday |

and – they turned up half an hour èarly | – (laughs) –

I mean you know what [g] getting up Sùnday’s image |

ànyway |

and – I’d – I was behind in any càse | –

and I’d said to them one o’clóck | –

and I ǎlmost phoned them up and said |

come a bit làter | –

and then I thought oh they’ve probably lèft by nów | –

so I image | –

and – twelve image | –

nôw | –

that càn’t be thém | –

and it wàs | –

and they’d they’d lèft |

plenty of image |

for all their conněctions |

and they got all their conněctions |

at ónce | –

and it was annǒying |

cos they came with this – image | –

you knów |

who was running all òver the place |

and they kept coming in and chàtting to mé |

and I couldn’t get òn with things |

and | I get really erm – you know when when I’m trying to còok | –

and people come and chàt |

| I get terribly put òff | –

can’t get on with things at àll |

erm – and yet you feel terribly anti-sǒcial |

if you you just stay in the image |

ànyway |

If you read this extract aloud, giving emphasis to the pitch movements in the syllables with tone marks and making pauses where they are indicated, you will find this version less rambling and more coherent than the first version in 19. Yet the text is identical in the two versions.

This goes to show that intonation is an important part of spoken language. But, of course, we can never manage to give an adequate written representation of what real speech is like. What we can do to get a better idea of real speech – not only of what was said, but also how it was said – is at least to indicate, as here, the main features of spoken discourse – by far the most widely used form of English.

A note on phonetic symbols

  43   Phonetic symbols are used only occasionally in this book, where they are needed to illustrate a grammatical point or rule. We have tried to use a system of transcription which is not biased towards a particular kind of speech, but this is not easy since British and American English (the two national varieties we are mainly dealing with) differ more in pronunciation than in any other respect. To make things simple, we consider only one accent from each national variety: Received Pronunciation (or RP), which is commonly used as a standard accent for the learning of British English pronunciation, and General American pronunciation (GA), which has a somewhat comparable status in the United States of America. However, considering the limited use we make of phonetic symbols, other standardized varieties of speech (e.g. for Australian English) are also reasonably well represented. Phonetic symbols, where they occur, will be enclosed in slant lines, for example: /θ/, /aʊ/, /mΛst/. We use the double bar (||) to separate RP and GA pronunciations, as in image for clerk.

images

Note

Corresponding to the <RP> diphthongs image are the <GA> r-coloured diphthongs which may be transcribed: image Similarly, corresponding to the <RP> long vowel /jk/ is the r-coloured vowel which may be transcribed: image e.g. image for bird.

Geographical and national varieties: <AmE> and <BrE>

  44   English is spoken as a first language by almost four hundred million people: in the United States of America, Great Britain, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, the Caribbean, and other places. This means there is a great abundance of English dialectal variation throughout the world. But when we come to the study of grammar in standard varieties of English, the differences are small. Within each English-speaking country there are many differences of regional dialect, e.g. between the English spoken in the Southern States of the USA and in other parts of the same country. These differences rarely affect grammatical usage in written English or in standardized spoken English, and so we ignore them in this book.

Since the varieties of English used in the United States and in Britain are the most important in terms of population and use throughout the world, the only national varieties we shall distinguish in this book are American English <AmE> and British English <BrE>. The grammatical differences between these two varieties (in comparison with differences in pronunciation and vocabulary) are not very great, and are almost negligible in <formal, written> usage. However, some brief examples here will show the kinds of difference which exist between <AmE> and <BrE>, and which will be pointed out in Parts Two and Three.

Article usage: <AmE>, but not <BrE>, tends to use the definite article with university and hospital (see 475):

<AmE>: Our daughter is at the university.

<BrE>: Our daughter is at university.

<AmE>: I’ve got to go to the hospital for an operation.

<BrE>: I’ve got to go to hospital for an operation.

got/gotten: <AmE> has two past participle forms of get: gotten and got, whereas <BrE> has only one: got (see 559). The past tense is got in both varieties. For example:

<AmE>: Have you gotten/got the theater tickets?

<BrE>: Have you got the theatre tickets?

Simple past and present perfect: There is also a tendency to use the simple past tense in <AmE> where the present perfect is used in <BrE>, for example, with yet or already (see 125, Note a):

<AmE>: Did you eat breakfast already?

<BrE or AmE>: Have you eaten breakfast already?

Subjunctive: The use of the subjunctive is more common in <AmE> than in <BrE> after verbs like demand, require, insist and suggest, after adjectives like important and necessary, and after nouns like demand and requirement. In <BrE> should + infinitive is usually preferred (see 706):

<typical of AmE>: The press suggested that Burt be dropped from the team.

<typical of BrE>: The press suggested that Burt should be dropped from the team.

different from/than/to: The adjective different can be used with from in both varieties, but different than is mostly <AmE> and different to uniquely <BrE>:

<BrE & AmE>: He’s just different from everybody else.

<AmE>: He’s just different than everybody else.

<BrE>: He’s just different to everybody else.

from … through, from … to: There are some other differences in prepositional usage, such as the use of from X through Y in <AmE> to clarify that a period includes both X and Y (see 163):

<AmE>: The tour lasted from July through August.

<BrE>: The tour lasted from July to August (inclusive). [In <BrE> the word inclusive is sometimes added to make clear that the period includes the last-mentioned period, here August.]

On other differences see the listing in the index under <AmE> and <BrE>.

Levels of usage: formal and informal English <formal>, <informal>

  45   We turn now to the way English varies not according to geographical differences, but according to differences in the relation between speaker (or writer) and hearer (or reader). We can refer to these as levels of usage (see 15–16).

Formal language is the type of language we use publicly for some serious purpose, for example in official reports, business letters, regulations, and academic writing. Formal English is nearly always <written>, but exceptionally it is used in <speech>, for example in formal public speeches or lectures. As an example of formal English, here is an extract from a book review:

The approach is remarkably interdisciplinary. Behind its innovations is the author’s fundamental proposal that the creativity of language derives from multiple parallel generative systems linked by interface components. This shift in basic architecture makes possible a radical reconception of mental grammar and how it is learned. As a consequence, the author is able to reintegrate linguistics with philosophy of mind, cognitive and developmental psychology, evolutionary biology, neuroscience, and computational linguistics.

Informal language (also called ‘colloquial’) is the language of ordinary conversation, of personal letters, and of private interaction in general. Here is another extract from an informal conversation <in AmE> (see further 19 and 42):

[A]

So Larry did you manage to get any sleep beside Michelle’s crying?

[B]

I didn’t hear a thing.

[A]

Really.

[B]

Yeah.

[A]

God, I can’t believe it.

[B]

I didn’t hear a thing.

[A]

Well, it must have been around three o’clock this morning. Suddenly she couldn’t sleep.

[B]

Really?

[A]

Yeah, I think she’s getting a cold.

[B]

What did she do?

[A]

Every time I started to fall asleep she’d go Mommy, Mommy.

[B]

Nope, I didn’t hear a thing.

[A]

Well, that’s good.

[B]

I can sleep through a hurricane, I guess.

Spoken language like this is typically informal, but informal English is now used more and more also in written communication of a popular kind, for example in newspapers, magazines, advertisements and popular fiction.

An example of the formality scale

  46   The difference between <formal> and <informal> usage is best seen as a scale, rather than as a simple ‘yes or no’ distinction. Consider the following example:

There are many friends to whom one would hesitate to entrust one’s own children. <formal>

[1]

This is towards the formal end of the scale for a number of reasons:

Use of there are, which (unlike the less formal there’s) maintains the plural concord with many friends as subject (see 547–9).

Use of many friends itself, rather than the more informal a lot of friends or lots of friends (see 72–3).

Use of the initial preposition to introduce a relative clause (to whom), rather than a construction with a final preposition who(m) … to. (Compare, for example, the formal the firm for which she works with the informal the firm she works for – see 686–94.)

Related to the preceding feature is the use of whom, which is itself a rather formal pronoun (see 686–94) compared with who – for example, in Whom did they meet? compared with Who did they meet?

Use of the generic personal pronoun one (see 98), rather than the more informal use of generic you.

  47   If we replaced all these features of [1] by informal equivalents, the sentence would run as follows [1a]:

There’s lots of friends who you would hesitate to entrust your own children to. <informal>

[1a]

However, it is significant that this sentence seems very unidiomatic. The reason is that a translation from one variety to another, like translation from one language to another, cannot be treated as a mechanical exercise. In practice, informal English prefers its own typical features, which include, for example, contracted forms of verbs (there’s rather than there is, etc.), omission of the relative pronoun who/whom/that, and informal vocabulary rather than more formal vocabulary such as entrust. As an example of informal English, [1b] is a more natural-sounding sentence than [1a]:

There’s lots of friends you’d never trust with your own children.

[1b]

However, we could make more lexical changes to increase or decrease the formality of this sentence. For example, replacing children by kids would make the sentence even more informal:

There’s lots of friends you’d never trust with your own kids.

[1c]

On the other hand, the following, with its use of there are and would, is a more formal variant:

There are lots of friends you would never trust with your own children.

[1d]

It is therefore possible to place the above sentences (leaving aside [1a]) on a scale from most to least formal in the following order:

There are many friends to whom one would hesitate to entrust one’s own children.

[1]

There are lots of friends you would never trust with your own children.

[1d]

There’s lots of friends you’d never trust with your own children.

[1b]

There’s lots of friends you’d never trust with your own kids.

[1c]

However, it is difficult to be precise about degrees of formality and informality, so that we often have to be content with relative phrases such as <rather formal> or <rather informal>.

  48   One reason for this vagueness is that formality, as a scale, can be applied on the one hand to aspects of the situation in which communication takes place, and on the other hand to features of language which correlate with those aspects. There is a two-way relation here: not only does situation influence the choice of language, but choice of language influences situation – or, more precisely, the nature of the situation as perceived by the speaker and hearer. Thus, someone answering the phone with the <very formal> question To whom am I speaking? would, by that very utterance, establish a more formal relationship with the other speaker than if the question had been Who am I speaking to?

Formality of vocabulary and grammar

  49   In English there are many differences of vocabulary between formal and informal language. Much of the vocabulary of formal English is of French, Latin, or Greek origin. In contrast, informal language is characterized by vocabulary of Anglo-Saxon origin. Compare:

<formal>

<less formal>

aid

help

commence

begin

conceal

hide

continue

keep on

conclude

end

Many phrasal and prepositional verbs (see 630–4) belong to informal English. Compare:

<formal>

<informal>

delete

cross off

encounter

come across

enter

go in(to)

investigate

look into

surrender

give in

renovate

do up

These differences show how formal and informal English provide the speaker with substantially different resources for communication, and again illustrate the difficulty of translating a sentence in one variety into an equivalent sentence in the other. The choice of appropriate grammar is intimately connected to the choice of vocabulary.

Impersonal style <impersonal>

  50   Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style, i.e. one in which the speaker avoids personal references to speaker and/or hearer, such as I, you, and we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives (see 613–18), sentences beginning with introductory it (see 542–6), and abstract nouns (see 67–9). All these features are illustrated in:

Announcement from the librarian

It has been noted with concern that the stock of books in the library has been declining alarmingly. Students are asked to remind themselves of the rules for borrowing and return of books, and to bear in mind the needs of other users. Penalties for overdue books will in the future be strictly enforced.

The author of the above could have written a more informal and less impersonal message as follows:

Bring those books back!

Books in the library have been disappearing. Please make sure you know the rules for borrowing, and don’t forget that the library is for everyone’s convenience. From now on, we’re going to enforce the rules strictly. You have been warned!

Polite and familiar language <polite>, <familiar>

  51   Our language tends to be more <polite> when we are talking to a person we do not know well, or to a person more senior in age or social position. Context also plays a role: for example, if we are asking a big favour, such as the loan of a large sum of money, this will induce greater politeness than if we were asking a small favour, such as the loan of a pen.

English has no special familiar pronouns or polite pronouns, like some languages (e.g. French tu/vous, German du/Sie corresponding to English you). But familiarity can be shown in other ways. Thus, when we know someone well or intimately, we tend to drop polite forms of language. Instead of using a polite vocative such as Mrs, Mr, or Ms we tend to use first name (Peter) or a short name (Pete) or even a nickname or pet name (Misty, Lilo, Boo-boo, etc.). Interestingly, present-day English makes little use of the surname alone, except in third person reference (e.g. Shakespeare, Bach, Bush) to someone one does not know personally, but by repute, such as a famous author, composer or politician.

  52   Polite language behaviour is most observable in such speech acts as requesting, advising, and offering (see 333–5, 347). Compare, for example, these requests:

Shut the door, will you? <familiar>

Would you please shut the door? <rather polite>

I wonder if you would mind shutting the door. <more polite>

The word please has the sole function of indicating politeness when one is making a request. But it has little effect in itself: to give a really polite impression, please usually has to be combined with devices of indirectness such as using a question, the hypothetical could or would, etc. (see 248, 333–4).

At the other end of the scale, slang is language which is very familiar in style, and is usually restricted to members of a particular social group, for example ‘teenage slang’, ‘army slang’, ‘theatre slang’. Slang is not easy to understand unless you are a member of a particular group or class of people. Because of its restricted use, and its short life, we will not be concerned with slang in this book.

Tactful and tentative language <tactful>, <tentative>

  53   Politeness and indirectness are linked with tact. To be tactful is to avoid causing offence or distress to another person. Sometimes tact means disguising or covering up the truth. A request, suggestion or piece of advice can be made more tactful by making it more tentative. Compare:

You’d better put off the meeting until tomorrow. <informal, familiar>

Look – why don’t you postpone the meeting until tomorrow? <informal>

May I suggest you postpone the meeting until tomorrow? <tactful, tentative>

Don’t you think it might be a good idea to postpone the meeting until tomorrow? <more tactful, more tentative>

In other cases tentativeness is simply an indication of speakers’ reluctance to commit themselves on given questions. For example, might just is a more tentative way of expressing possibility than may:

Someone may have made a mistake.

Someone might just have made a mistake. <more tentative)

Literary, elevated or rhetorical language <literary>, <elevated>, <rhetorical>

  54   Some features of English of limited use have a ‘literary’ or ‘elevated’ tone: they belong mainly to the literary or religious language of the past, but can still be used today by someone who wants to move or impress us. An example of elevated language comes from a speech by President George W. Bush:

Our nation – this generation – will lift a dark threat of violence from our people and our future. We will rally the world to this cause by our efforts, by our courage. We will not tire, we will not falter, and we will not fail.

We will not tire, we will not falter, and we will not fail echoes the rhetoric of Abraham Lincoln [1] and Winston Churchill [2]:

But in a large sense we cannot dedicate – we cannot consecrate – we cannot hallow this ground.

[1]

We shall not flag or fail … We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, … we shall never surrender.

[2]

In addition to the variety labels <literary> and <elevated>, we occasionally use the similar label <rhetorical>. This signifies a stylized use of language, consciously chosen for an emphatic or emotive effect. A good example of this is the so-called ‘rhetorical question’ (see 305), which is meant to be interpreted as an emphatic statement:

Is it any wonder that politicians are mistrusted? (= ‘It is no wonder …’)

Although we meet them in the literature of earlier periods, literary, elevated and rhetorical forms of language tend to be unusual in the English of today (and noticeable for that very reason). We will refer to them only very occasionally in this book.

Levels of usage: a map of variety labels

  55   Apart from the national varieties <AmE> and <BrE>, the different types of English we have discussed are related to one another, and might go under the general title of levels of usage. We might attempt to place them on a scale running from ‘elevated’ English at one extreme to ‘slang’ at the other extreme. But it is probably better to think in terms of three pairs of contrasting values, as shown:

images

This diagram represents only the most important levels of usage, ignoring the more restricted variety labels, such as <impersonal> and <elevated>. The features on the left tend to go together – likewise the features on the right – and this is conveyed by the vertical broken lines. But the lines are broken because the connection does not always hold: for example, it is possible to express oneself politely in spoken English, and it is possible to express oneself informally in written English.

The horizontal arrows represent scales of contrast. The common core of ‘unmarked’ usage occupies a middle area between the extremes of each of the three scales.

  56   In Parts Two and Three we make free use of the labels for varieties of English, because we feel it is important to give as full guidance as possible on the ‘appropriate use’ of English grammatical forms and structures. Some speakers of English may disagree with some of our judgements on the uses of these labels. This is because our knowledge of ‘levels of usage’ still remains, today, very much a subjective matter, depending on the perceptions of people who use the language. For example, an older English speaker might regard as <familiar> a form of language which might not seem so to a younger speaker. There are also differences of perception in different English-speaking countries. Thus, without considering these labels as descriptive of general standards of appropriateness, we would like you to use them for guidance in your own use of the language.

PART TWO

Grammar in use

SECTION A

Concepts

Referring to objects, substances and materials

  57   Through nouns and noun phrases, grammar organizes the way we refer to objects. We begin with concrete nouns, or nouns referring to physical objects and substances. (We use the word ‘object’ to refer generally to things, animals, people, etc.) Our first topic will be count and mass concrete nouns, and the various ways in which they are linked by of.

Singular and plural: one and many

  58   Count nouns refer in the singular to one object, and in the plural to more than one object. As the name implies, count nouns can be counted: one star, two stars, etc. (see 597–601):

Images

Groups of objects

  59   We may refer to objects as belonging to a group or set, as follows:

Images

Group nouns: a group (of stars)

  60   Nouns like group, set, and class, which refer to a set of objects, are called group nouns. Like other count nouns, group nouns may be singular or plural; e.g.

one group of stars

three groups of stars

a set of tools

two sets of tools

a class of insects

several classes of insects

Often a special group noun is used with certain kinds of objects:

an army [of soldiers]

a crew [of sailors]

a crowd of people

a gang of thieves, youths, etc.

a herd of cattle

a pack of cards

a flock of sheep

a constellation of stars

a bunch of flowers

a series of games

Many group nouns refer to a group of people having a special relationship with one another, or brought together for a particular reason: tribe, family, committee, club, audience, government, administration, team, etc. There is often a choice of whether to use a singular or plural verb (see 510), especially in <BrE>:

singular: when we treat the group as a single thing

plural: when we treat the group as a collection of individuals

The audience is/are enjoying the show.

Notice also the difference between its stated aims (singular) and their stated aims (plural) in this example:

The government has lost sight of its stated aims.

The government have lost sight of their stated aims. <esp. BrE>

Part and whole: part of the cake, a piece of cake

  61   Parts of objects can be referred to by

part nouns like part (contrasted with whole), half, a quarter, two thirds, etc.

unit nouns like piece, slice

Images

Mass nouns: milk, sand, etc.

  62   Mass nouns (sometimes called ‘non-count’ or ‘uncountable’ nouns) are so called because they cannot be counted like count nouns (see 597). They typically refer to substances, whether

solid, e.g. butter, wood, rock, iron, glass

liquid, e.g. oil, water, milk, blood, ink, OR

gas, e.g. smoke, air, butane, steam, oxygen

Mass nouns are always singular: it makes no sense to ‘count’ the quantity of a mass substance which cannot be divided into separate objects. You can say:

There’s no milk in the refrigerator.

We had two cartons of milk to cook with.

BUT NOT: *There are no milks in the refrigerator.

*We had two milks to cook with. (see 66)

Some mass nouns, we might argue, should ‘really’ be count, because the ‘substance’ consists of separate things: furniture consists of pieces of furniture, grass of separate blades of grass, hair of separate strands of hair (or hairs), wheat of separate grains of wheat. But psychologically we think of such things as indivisible when we use a mass noun.

Note

On mass nouns which can be ‘converted’ into count nouns (two coffees, please), see 66.

Division of objects and substances

Unit nouns: a piece of bread, a block of ice, etc.

  63   As with single objects, masses can be subdivided by the use of nouns like part:

Part of the butter has melted.

In addition, there are many countable unit nouns, as we call them, which can be used to subdivide notionally a mass into separate ‘pieces’. Piece and bit <informal> are general purpose unit nouns, which can be combined with most mass nouns:

a piece of bread

a piece of paper

a piece of land

a bit of food

a bit of paint

a bit of air

There are also unit nouns which typically go with particular mass nouns:

a blade of grass

a sheet of paper

a block of ice

a speck of dust

a pile of rubbish

a bar of chocolate

two lumps of sugar

a length of new rope

several cups of coffee

a fresh load of hay

As with part nouns, unit nouns are linked to the other nouns by of. Sometimes, the word for a container (cup, bottle, etc.) is used as a unit noun, as in a cup of tea, a bottle of wine.

Nouns of measure: a kilo of flour, etc.

  64   Another way to divide a mass into separate ‘pieces’ is to measure it off into length, weight, etc:

DEPTH:

a foot of water

AREA:

an acre of land

LENGTH:

a yard of cloth

 

a hectare of rough ground

 

20 metres of rope

 

12 square miles of woodland

WEIGHT:

an ounce of low fat spread

VOLUME:

a pint of beer

 

a kilo of flour

 

a litreliter of milk

Species nouns: a type of, etc.

  65   Here is another type of division: nouns like type, kind, sort, species, class, variety can divide a mass or a set of objects into ‘types’ or ‘species’:

Teak is a type of wood.

A Ford is a make of car.

A tiger is a species of mammal. <rather formal>

We usually place adjectives and other modifiers before the species noun rather than the noun which follows of:

a Japanese make of car (NOT *a make of Japanese car)

a delicious kind of bread

Notice that the second noun, when count, usually has no indefinite article: a strange kind of mammal (NOT *a strange kind of a mammal).

In <informal> English, there is a mixed construction in which the determiner (if any) and the verb are plural, although the species noun is singular:

These kind of dogs are easy to train. <informal>

The normal construction is:

This kind of dog is easy to train.

Nouns which can be both count and mass

  66   Quite a number of nouns can be both count and mass (see 597). Wood, for instance, is count when it refers to a collection of trees (= a forest), and mass when it refers to the material of which trees are composed:

We went for a walk in the woods. [count]

In America a lot of the houses are made of wood. [mass]

Many food nouns are count when they refer to the article in its ‘whole’ state, but are mass when they refer to the food in the mass, e.g. as eaten at table:

There was a huge cake in the dining room.

BUT:

‘Let them eat cake’, said the queen.

 

She began peeling potatoes.

BUT:

She took a mouthful of potato.

 

Do we have enough food for the weekend?

BUT:

Some of the tastiest foods are pretty indigestible.

 

I’d like a boiled egg for my breakfast.

BUT:

I’d prefer some scrambled egg on toast, please.

In other cases English has a separate count noun and a separate mass noun referring to the same area of meaning:

Count

Mass

Do you have a fresh loaf?

Do you have some fresh bread?

Would you like a meal?

Would you like some more food?

She’s looking for a new job.

She’s looking for some interesting work.

There are too many vehicles on the road.

There is too much traffic on the road.

Sometimes words which are usually mass nouns are ‘converted’ into count unit nouns or count species nouns:

Two more coffees, please. (= cups of coffee)

Current London auctions deal with teas from 25 countries. (= kinds of tea)

Occasionally the opposite happens: count nouns are ‘converted’ into mass nouns after a noun of measure: a few square metresmeters of floor; a mile of river.

Concrete and abstract

  67   Abstract nouns refer to qualities (difficulty), events (arrival), feelings (love), etc. Just like concrete nouns, abstract nouns combine with part nouns (part of the time), unit nouns (a piece of information), and species nouns (a new kind of music). Abstract nouns can be either count or mass, even though these notions cannot be understood in a physical sense.

In general, abstract nouns can more easily be both ‘count’ and ‘mass’ than concrete nouns. Nouns referring to events and occasions (talk, knock, shot, meeting, etc.) are usually count:

There was a loud knock at the door.

The committee has had three meetings.

But talk (together with other nouns like sound, thought) can also be a mass noun:

I had a long talk with her. [count]

In the country we now hear talk of famine. [mass]

I couldn’t hear a sound. [count]

These modern planes can fly faster than sound. [mass]

What are your thoughts on this problem? [count]

He was deep in thought. [mass]

Other abstract nouns tend to be mass nouns only: honesty, happiness, information, progress, applause, homework, research, etc. (see 597):

Her speech was followed by loud applause.

I have some homework to finish.

We offer information and advice.

Wealth did not bring them happiness.

  68   But again, many such nouns (e.g. experience, difficulty, trouble) can be either mass or count (with some difference of meaning):

We had little difficulty convincing him. [mass]

BUT:

He is having financial difficulties. [count]

 

He is a policeman of many years’ experience. [mass]

BUT:

Tell me about your experiences abroad. [count]

 

I have some work to do this evening. [mass noun work = labour, activity]

BUT:

They have played two works by an unknown French composer.

[count noun work = artistic or musical works]

Some nouns are mass nouns in English, but not in some other languages. Examples are advice, information, news, shopping:

Can you give me some good advice on what to buy here?

Do you have any information about the airport buses?

What’s the latest news about the election?

The department stores stay open for evening shopping.

Partition and division with abstract nouns:a useful bit of advice

  69   Part with abstract nouns is illustrated by:

Part of his education was at the University of Cambridge.

Division is illustrated in these phrases:

Unit nouns:

We had a (good) game of chess.

 

He suffered from (terrible) fits of anger.

 

There was a (sudden) burst of applause.

 

Let me give you a (useful) bit of advice.

 

Here’s an (interesting) item of news. (ALSO: a news item)

 

This translation is one of her best pieces of work.

Time (period) nouns

(the equivalent of measure nouns, for abstractions):

 

three months of hard work

 

       (ALSO three months’ hard work, 107)

Species nouns:

a(n exciting) type of dance

 

a (strange)kind of behaviourbehavior

Amount or quantity

Amount words (or quantifiers) (see 675–80): all, some, etc.

  70   Amount words like all, some and none can be used with both count and mass nouns.

(A) Used with singular count nouns like cake, house they are equivalent to part nouns:

Images

(B) Used with plural nouns like stars:

Images

(C) Used with mass nouns like land:

Images

Note these relations of meaning between all, some and none:

Some of the stars were invisible.

= Not all (of) the stars were visible.

None of the stars was visible.

= All (of) the stars were invisible.

Further examples:

Some of the patients will have pain when they come to hospital.

(i.e. Others will not)

None of their attempts so far has been wholly successful.

(i.e. All attempts have been unsuccessful.)

  71   Amount words specify more precisely the meaning ‘some’:

A large quantity

Images

A small quantity

Images

Not a large quantity

Images

Notice that few and little without a have a negative bias. Compare:

A few (= a small number, some of) of the students pass the examination.

Few (= not many) of the students pass the examination.

Other words of quantity or amount:

Two/three (and other numerals, see 602) of our best players have been injured.

Half (of) the money was stolen.

More of your time should be spent in the office. (ALSO: less of your time)

Most of our friends live locally.

Several of the paintings (= ‘slightly more than a few’) are from private collections.

Note

With a/the majority of and a minority of (both <rather formal>) it is normal to use plural and group nouns (on concord with the verb in these and similar cases, see 510):

The majority of the farmers are the sons and grandsons of farmers. (= Most of the farmers …)

Only a minority of women feel able to report such attacks to the police. (= fewer than half …)

Many and much; a lot of, lots of

  72   Many and much are often used in combinations with as, too, so (as many/ much as, too many/much, so many/much) and in questions (how many/much?). Compare the count and mass words in the questions and answers below:

Images

Indefinite use of amount words

  73   For the amount words above there is a definite ‘total’ (shown by the circles in the diagrams in 70) within which amounts are to be measured. Now we look at the general (indefinite) use of amount words, where no total is given. Here the amount word is used as a determiner e.g. most people (see 522), and of and the are generally omitted. (But of occurs with a lot of, a great deal of, a number of, lots of, etc., as in a lot of fun, a number of people, even where the following expression is indefinite.)

Count

All crimes are avoidable. (i.e. all of the crimes in the world)

We didn’t buy many things.

Mass

All violence is avoidable.

We didn’t buy much food.

Count

All pupils should learn to ski.

We saw several snakes down by the river.

Most men don’t know how to dance.

Few new writers have their first story accepted.

I want to ask Mr Danby a few questions.

I think people catch fewer colds these days.

Mass

You’ll do a lot better with less food in your stomach.

Plants in plastic pots usually need less water than those in clay pots.

The village can provide no food for the refugees.

It will take a little time to clear up the mess.

Put a few pieces of butter on top of the vegetables.

In <informal> style, a lot of (or lots of) is preferred to many or much in positive statements:

Many patients arrive on the surgical ward as planned admissions. <formal>

You find a lot of nurses have given up smoking. <informal>

There’s lots of spare time if you need it.

But in questions and after negatives (very) many and much are not restricted to <formal> English:

Images

Words of general or inclusive meaning

  74   All, both, every, each, and (sometimes) any are amount words of general or inclusive meaning. With count nouns, all is used for quantities of more than two, and both for quantities of two only:

The western is a popular kind of movie with both sexes and all ages.

Every, each

  75   Words like every and each can be called distributive, because they pick out the members of a set or group singly, rather than look at them all together. Apart from this difference, every has the same meaning as all:

All good teachers study their subject(s) carefully.

[1]

Every good teacher studies his or her subject carefully.

[2]

The ‘distributive’ meaning of every shows in the use of singular forms teacher, studies, his or her in [2]. (However, see 96 on the use of he or she, his or her, they, their etc.)

  76   Each is like every except that it can be used when the set has only two members. Thus each (unlike all and every) can sometimes replace both with little difference of meaning:

Images

Note also the difference between:

She complimented each/She complimented each/every member of the winning team.every member of the winning team.

[3]

She complimented all (the) members of the winning team.

[4]

Whereas [3] suggests that she spoke to each member of the team separately, [4] suggests that she made one speech, addressing all members of the team at once. Like every in meaning are everyone, everybody, everything, and everywhere.

Any, either

  77   The most familiar use of the determiners any and either is in negative sentences and questions (see 697–9), but here we consider them as inclusive words. Any can sometimes replace all and every in positive sentences:

These days any young man with brains can do very well.

Any new vehicle has to be registered immediately.

Images

Here any has the same inclusive meaning as all and every in [1] and [2]. But any means something different in:

You can paint the wall any colour you like.

Any colour means ‘red or green or blue or …’, while every colour means ‘red and green and blue and.…’ Any means ‘it doesn’t matter who/which/ what … one chooses’.

  78   When there are only two objects or people, either is used instead of any:

You could ask either of my parents. (= either my father or my mother)

Compare the use of negative neither for two objects (see 379, 584):

Neither of my parents is keen on rock music.

  79   Any can also be used with mass nouns and plural count nouns:

Àny land is valuable thése days.

You’re lucky to find àny shops open on Sǔnday.

As shown here, any often takes nuclear stress (see 36). Like any are anyone, anybody, anything, anywhere, anyhow, anyway and <informal AmE> anyplace:

Anyone will tell you the way. (= Whoever you ask, he or she will …)

He will eat anything. (= He will eat whatever you give him.)

Scale of amount

  80   We can order the most common amount words roughly on a scale, moving from the inclusive words at the top, to the negative words at the bottom:

Images

(Any we place separately, because its main use, in negative and interrogative contexts, does not fit into this scale.)

  81   Positions on a scale of amount can be expressed not only through the words already discussed (which are determiners or pronouns) but by pronouns like everybody, everything, and by adverbs of frequency (always), degree (entirely), etc. We show some of the different areas of meaning in the table opposite.

Of the columns of the diagram, A–D represent noun phrases, and E–G represent adverbials (to be dealt with later in 449–63). The rows are in ascending order of amount, from the inclusive word all to the noncommittal word any. Here are some examples labelled according to their position in the table opposite:

A1

All stress increases the body’s need for nutrients.

B1

All faculty members were given bonuses.

B2

Are there many other names which come to mind?

B3

Some of these patients will be nursed in a surgical ward.

C6

Nobody was reported injured. / No one was hurt.

C7

Anyone would be astonished to see the amount of public money wasted.

D6

Nothing has yet been decided.

D7

He would do anything to please her.

E3

You ought to come over to Cambridge sometimes.

E4

Cook the vegetables slowly, stirring occasionally.

E5

Margotte rarely turned on the television set.

G5

He sounded terrified and I could hardly blame him.

Images

Definite and indefinite meaning: the, a/an, zero

  82   When we use the definite article the we presume that both we and the hearer or reader know what is being talked about: the dog, the race. Most of the words we have considered in 70–81 are indefinite; but if we want to express indefinite meaning without any added meaning of amount, etc, we use the indefinite article a/an (with singular count nouns), or the zero indefinite article with mass nouns or plural count nouns (see 597):

Would you like a drink?

Do you like chocolate?

Uses of the definite article

To express definite meaning we use the definite article the. There are four main cases.

Unique use of the

  83   When the object or group of objects is the only one that exists (or has existed): the stars, the earth, the world, the sea, the North Pole, the equator, the Renaissance, the human race:

The North Pole and the South Pole are equally distant from the equator.

This unique use of the also arises where what is referred to is ‘understood’ to be unique in the context: the sun, the moon, the kitchen, the town-hall, the Queen, the last President, etc. We could, if we wanted, make the definite meaning clear by modification after the noun (the moon belonging to this earth, the kitchen of this house, the Queen of this country, etc.), but this would normally be unnecessary.

Back-pointing use of the

  84   When identity has been established by an earlier mention (often with an indefinite article):

Images

Forward-pointing use of the

  85   When identity is established by a modifier, such as a relative clause or an of-phrase (see 641) that follows the noun:

The woman who answered the door helped Jack into the room.

The wine of France is the best in the world.

The discovery of radium marked the beginning of a new era of medicine.

Conventional use of the (for institutions, etc.): the radio, the paper

  86   When reference is made to an institution shared by the community: the radio, the television, the telephone, the newspaper, the paper, the train:

I read in the paper the next day that he’d been killed by burglars.

We’ll maybe go to Glasgow this week on the train.

Most cases of this institutional use are connected with communications and transport. Sometimes (see 475) the article may be omitted with this use:

What’s on (the) television tonight?

Note

After a preposition, the is used before parts of the body in constructions like these:

She looked him in the eye and said ‘No’.

Lev smiled and shook me by the hand.

Usually, in such cases, the direct object refers to the person who ‘owns’ the body-part (see 624).

Generic use of articles

  87   The also has a generic use, referring to what is general or typical for a whole class of objects. This is found with count nouns:

The tiger is one of the big cats; it is rivalled only by the lion in strength and ferocity. The tiger has no mane, but in old males the hair on the cheeks is rather long and spreading.

[1]

Here the tiger indicates tigers in general, not one individual. Thus [1] expresses essentially the same meaning as [2] and [3]:

Tigers have no mane.

[2]

A tiger has no mane.

[3]

[2] is the generic use of the indefinite plural form; [3] is the generic use of the indefinite singular. When we are dealing with a whole class of objects as here, the differences between definite and indefinite, singular and plural, tend to lose their importance. But there is a slight difference in the fact that the tiger (generic) refers to the species as a whole, while a tiger (generic) refers to any member of the species. We can say:

The tiger is in danger of becoming extinct.

Tigers are in danger of becoming extinct.

BUT NOT: *A tiger is in danger of becoming extinct.

Specific versus generic meaning

  88   In contrast to the generic use of the, all the other uses (see 83–6) may be called specific. For mass nouns, there is only one generic form, which has a zero article:

Water is oxidized by the removal of hydrogen, and oxygen is released.

The ways of expressing generic meaning with count and mass nouns are shown in the table:

Images

As the table implies, the is always specific with mass nouns (the water) and also with plural nouns (the tigers) (with the exception of some nationality words, see 579). The following examples show generic meaning with three types of noun:

butter, gold, Venetian glass, Scandinavian furniture, … [concrete mass nouns]

music, health, English literature, contemporary art, … [abstract mass mouns]

dogs, friends, wooden buildings, classical languages, … [plural nouns]

In specific use, these nouns take the.

Specific Use

Generic Use

Pass the butter, please.

Butter is expensive nowadays.

The acting was poor, but we enjoyed the music.

Dancing and music were her hobbies.

Before you visit Spain, you ought to learn the language.

The scientific study of language is called linguistics.

Come and look at the horses!

‘I just love horses,’ said Murphy.

  89   Notice that English tends to treat mass nouns and plural nouns as generic when they have a modifier before them (Chinese history). But when they are followed by a modifier, especially by an of-phrase, the normally has to be present (the history of China). Compare:

Chinese history

the history of China

American social life

the social life of America

early mediaeval architecture

the architecture of the early middle ages

animal behaviour

the behaviour of animals

The tendency is strong with abstract mass nouns. It is less strong with concrete mass nouns and plural nouns. We can omit the in

eighteenth-century furniture

(the) furniture of the eighteenth century

tropical birds

(the) birds of the tropics

Compare:

Images

Generic the with adjectives, nationality nouns, and group nouns

  90   Adjectives are used with generic the:

To denote a class of people (the poor, the unemployed, the young, the handicapped) (see 448):

They should see to it that there’s work for the unemployed, food for the hungry, and hospitals for the sick.

To denote an abstract quality (the absurd, the beautiful, the sublime) (see 448):

His behaviour on the platform borders on the ridiculous.

With nationality adjectives ending in a sibilant -ch, -ese, -sh or -ss used to refer to a people as a whole: the Dutch, the English, the French, the Japanese, the Vietnamese (see 579):

The French say they must sell more wine to Germany.

Generic the is also commonly used:

With nationality or ethnic nouns (except those ending in -women or -men), e.g. the Indians, the Poles, the Zulus:

The plan has received warm support from the Germans.

With group nouns like the middle class, the public, the administration, the government (see 60), or collective plural nouns such as the clergy, the police:

He was a socialist and believed in the right of the working class to control their own destiny.

The public can help by reporting anything suspicious to the police.

Other words of definite meaning

  91   Apart from common nouns (i.e. count and mass nouns) with the, the following words have definite meanings:

Proper nouns (see 667): Susan, Chicago, Tuesday, Africa, etc.

Personal pronouns (see 619): I, we, he, she, it, they, you, etc.

Pointer words or demonstratives (see 521): this, that, these, those

We will deal with these in turn, bearing in mind the types of definiteness already discussed (see 83–6).

Proper nouns

  92   Proper nouns are understood to have unique reference: Africa refers to one particular continent, and Susan (in a given conversation) refers to one particular person. Here no the comes before the proper noun (see 667), because definite meaning is ‘built into’ the noun itself. This also normally applies when a proper noun is the first word in a two-word name, such as Harvard University, Oxford Street.

  93   But when proper nouns change into common nouns, the can be used. This happens, for example, when we need to distinguish two or more things of the same name.

the Susan next door (i.e. not the Susan who works in your office)

[4]

the Venice of story books (i.e. not the Venice of reality)

[5]

In [5], we distinguish not two places of the same name, but two aspects of the same place. The is also sometimes used before modifiers + noun (the young Catherine, the future President Kennedy), but with place-names it is generally left out: Ancient Greece, eighteenth century London, upstate New York.

In a similar way proper nouns sometimes change to plural:

I know several Mr Wilsons. (= ‘people called Mr Wilson’)

He was a close friend of the Kennedys. (= ‘the family named Kennedy’)

A proper noun may also sometimes follow the indefinite article:

A man called Wilson murdered a Mrs Henrichson because she refused to rent him a room.

This means ‘a certain Mrs Henrichson’ (a person you won’t have heard of).

Third person pronouns

  94   Third person pronouns (he, she, it, they) are usually definite because they point back to a previous mention. In a sense, they ‘replace’ an earlier noun phrase:

Images

Concrete nouns are replaced by he, she, it, or they as follows:

he (him, his, himself) refers to a male person (or animal)

she (her, hers, herself) refers to a female person (or animal)

it (its, itself) refers to an inanimate thing (or an animal)

they (them, their, theirs, themselves) is the plural pronoun, referring to either animate or inanimate.

  95   He and she are used for animals when we think of them as having the personal qualities of human beings (e.g. family pets):

Nemo, the killer whale, who’d grown too big for his pool on Clacton Pier, has arrived safely in his new home in Windsor safari park.

It is otherwise used for animals, and sometimes for babies and very young children, especially when their sex is unknown:

In the farmyard a dog in its kennel was barking loudly.

In her arms lay the delicate baby, with its deep blue eyes.

Mass nouns and singular abstract nouns are replaced by it:

I’ve washed my hair, and it won’t keep tidy.

Life today is so busy that its true meaning often eludes us.

Note

She is sometimes used

for inanimate objects (especially ships):

A ship had come in from Greece and was unloading her cargo.

for countries seen as political units:

Last year France increased her exports by 10 per cent.

Referring to male and female

  96   When a human noun is replaced by a pronoun and the sex is not known or specified, traditionally he is used rather than she:

A martyr is someone who gives up his life for his beliefs.

However, nowadays this bias towards the male term is widely avoided, and he or she (or him or her, etc.) is often used instead:

A martyr is someone who gives up his or her life for his or her beliefs.

It’s the duty of every athlete to know what he or she is taking to eat and drink.

As the first of these examples shows, however, he or she (etc.) can have an awkward effect, especially if repeated. Another method of avoiding sex bias, well established in <spoken English>, is the singular use of they:

A martyr is someone who gives up their life for their beliefs.

This ‘ungrammatical’ mixing of singular and plural is making its way into <informal> writing, although those with a strict sense of grammar avoid it. Since none of the above alternatives is entirely satisfactory, it is often possible to avoid the problem of sex-neutral third-person reference by changing from the singular to the plural:

Martyrs are people who give up their life/lives for their beliefs.

Here, of course, the use of they causes no problem in itself, although indirectly it may cause other problems, such as whether to use life or lives in the above example.

Note

Other solutions to the problem of how to avoid male bias include the use of the subjective pronoun form s/he, the use of she or he, and the use of she as a sex-neutral pronoun. The mixed form s/he is convenient in writing, but has the limitation of not having any oblique forms such as *s/him or *s/his. Another disadvantage is that its pronunciation is not distinguishable from that of she.

First and second person pronouns: I, we, you

  97   The first and second person pronouns have reference to the situation as follows:

First person:

I (me, my, mine, myself)

‘the speaker’

we (us, our, ours, ourselves)

‘a group of people, including the speaker’

Second person:

you (your, yourself, yourselves)

a ‘the hearer’ (singular)

b ‘a group of people, including the hearer but excluding the speaker’ (plural)

We sometimes includes the hearer (= ‘you and I’), and sometimes excludes the hearer:

Let’s go back to the bar now, shall we? [‘inclusive we’: let’s = let us] (see 498)

We’ve enjoyed meeting you. [‘exclusive we’]

Inclusive we is often used by writers of books:

In this section we shall consider a few examples …

Let’s look at this in further detail …

Generic use of pronouns: one, you, they

  98   Three pronouns have a generic use, in reference to people in general.

One (one’s, oneself – singular) is rather <formal and impersonal> meaning ‘people in general including you and me’:

One never knows what may happen. <rather formal>

One has to help one’s fellow human beings. <rather formal>

You is its <informal> equivalent:

You never know what may happen. <informal>

All this exercise makes you hungry, doesn’t it? <informal>

They can also be used generically in <informal> English, but with a different meaning from one and you. It means roughly ‘people (excluding you and me)’:

They say it’s going to rain tomorrow. (= ‘People say …’)

Pointer words: this, that, etc.

  99   We use the term pointer words for words like the demonstrative this and that, which refer by pointing to something in the context. They can have three different uses.

Pointer words can be situational, i.e. they can point to something in the context outside language:

Would you like to sit in this chair (= ‘the one by me’) or in that one? (= ‘the one away from me, over there’)

This identifies something near the speaker (either physically, in terms of space or time, or psychologically). That identifies something not so near the speaker.

Pointer words can be back-pointing, i.e. they can point to something mentioned earlier:

I then tried to force the door open, but this/ that was a mistake.

Pointer words can be forward-pointing, i.e. they can point to something to be mentioned later:

This is what the graph shows. One line shows what has happened to personal wealth. The second line shows the fall in the savings ratio.

  100   We may separate two classes of pointer words, those related to this (and having the ‘near’ meaning) and those related to that (and having the ‘distant’ meaning).

Images

This and that can replace each other with no difference of meaning in back-pointing, but this is commoner in <formal> English. For forward-pointing, only this, and the this-type words these, here, and thus can be used (but see 101):

Images

Notice the opening and close of a radio message or news bulletin:

Here is what the message said: Please leave this room as tidy as you found it. [forward-pointing]

And that’s the end of the news. [back-pointing]

  101   Those is forward-pointing when its meaning is defined by a following modifier: those who are interested (= ‘people who are interested’) (see 521).

In <informal> style, this can ‘point forward’ in the sense of setting up a new topic for discussion, whereas that can ‘point back’ to some vaguely shared experience:

Have you seen this report about smoking? (= ‘a report I know about’)

It gives you that great feeling of clean air and open spaces. (= ‘the feeling we all know about’)

This can also be used <familiarly> to introduce something new in a narrative:

I was just coming out of the bank when this girl came up to me … (= ‘a girl I’m going to tell you about’)

Relations between ideas expressed by nouns

Relations expressed by of

  102   We have talked of of used in phrases of

•  partition: a part of the house (see 61)

•  division: a kind of tree (see 63)

•  amount: most of our problems (see 70–81)

Of is also used more generally to indicate various relations between the meanings of two nouns:

the roof of the house (the house has a roof; the roof is part of the house)

a friend of my father’s (my father has a friend, see 535)

the courage of the firefighters (the firefighters have courage; the firefighters are courageous)

the envy of the world (the world envies …)

the trial of the conspirators (someone tries the conspirators)

the causes of stress (stress is caused by …)

the virtue of thrift (thrift is a virtue)

a shortage of money (money is short, money is in short supply)

a glass of water (the glass has water in it; the glass contains water)

people of the Middle Ages (people who lived in the Middle Ages)

the house of my dreams (the house which I see in my dreams)

the College of Surgeons (the College to which surgeons belong)

The ‘have’ relation

  103   Both of and with can indicate a relation of ‘having’. From the sentence ‘Noun1 has Noun2’ we can focus either on Noun2 or Noun1.

•  Noun2 of Noun1:          the roof of the house, the courage of the people

•  Noun1 of Noun2:         people of (great) courage

•  Noun1 with Noun2:     a house with a (flat) roof

In the ‘Noun1 + preposition + Noun2’ construction, of is used where Noun2 is abstract (a performance of distinction, a country of enormous wealth), and with is used where Noun2 is concrete (a woman with a large family, a man with a beard).

The uses of the genitive

  104   A genitive (ending ’s or apostrophe only, see 530) can often be used with the same meaning as an of-phrase, especially where the genitive has human reference:

•  The ‘have’ relation (‘Dr Brown has a son’)

images

•  The subject-verb relation (‘His parents consented’)

his parents’ consent

the consent of his parents

the train’s departure

the departure of the train (more usual)

•  The verb-object relation (‘They released the prisoner’)

the prisoner’s release

the release of the prisoner

a city’s destruction

the destruction of a city (more usual)

•  The subject-complement relation (‘Everyone is happy’)

Marian’s happiness

the happiness of Marian

the country’s beauty

the beauty of the country

  105   In the following cases, the of-phrase is not normally used:

•  The origin relation (‘The girl told a story’, etc.)

the girl’s story (= a story that the girl told)

John’s telegram (= a telegram from John OR a telegram that John sent)

•  Various classifying relations (where the genitive behaves rather like a modifying noun or adjective)

a women’s college (= a college for women)

a doctor’s degree (= a doctoral degree)

Choice between an of-construction and the genitive

  106   In general, the genitive is preferred for human nouns (the girl’s arrival) and sometimes also for animal nouns (horses’ hooves) and human group nouns (the government’s policy). Of is usually preferred for inanimate nouns and abstract nouns (the discovery of helium, the progress of science). In general, the genitive is also preferred for the subject-verb relation:

Livingstone’s discovery (= ‘Livingstone discovered something’)

but of is preferred for the verb-object relation:

the discovery of Livingstone (usually = ‘Somebody discovered Livingstone’)

The subject function can also be indicated by a by-phrase. Hence the idea ‘The army defeated the rebels’ might be expressed in three ways as a noun phrase:

the army’s defeat of the rebels

the defeat of the rebels by the army

the rebels’ defeat by the army

(But the rebels’ defeat of the army has to mean that the rebels defeated the army.)

The of-construction is also preferred, especially in <formal> English, to the genitive when the modifying noun phrase is long. We can easily say:

the departure of the 4.30 train for Edinburgh

BUT NOT:

the 4.30 train for Edinburgh’s departure (see 533)

  107   Note two special cases of the genitive.

•  Time nouns are frequently used in the genitive:

this year’s crop of potatoes

two weeks’ holiday

a moment’s thought

today’s menu (OR the menu for today)

•  Place nouns are also frequently used in the genitive, especially if followed by a superlative:

the town’s oldest pub (OR the oldest pub in the town – NOT *the oldest pub of the town)

Norway’s greatest composer (OR the greatest composer in Norway)

the world’s best chocolate (OR the best chocolate in the world)

Relations between people: with, for, against

  108   With often means ‘together with’ or ‘in company with’:

I’m so glad you’re coming with us.

[1]

Sheila was at the theatre with her friends.

[2]

Sentence [2] is not very different in meaning from

Sheila and her friends were at the theatre.

Without is the negative of with in this sense:

Sheila was ill, so we went to the theatre without her.

With, in a situation of conflict or competition, means ‘on the same side as’:

Remember that every one of us is with you. (= ‘on your side’)

Are you with us or against us?

For conveys the idea of support (= ‘in favour of’) and, like with, contrasts with against:

Are you for or against the President?

Note

Also notice: the fight against pollution, the campaign against inflation, etc. In contrast to its meaning above, with can convey the idea of opposition between two people or groups in fight with, argue with, etc: Stop arguing with me.

Ingredient, material: with, of, out of, from

  109   With verbs of ‘making’, use with for an ingredient, and out of or of for the material of the whole thing:

A fruit cake is made with fruit, but a glass jug is made (out) of glass.

Made from means that one is derived from another:

They lived in tents made from blankets.

Most paper is made from wood-pulp.

Of alone is used in postmodifying phrases: a ring of solid gold (i.e. … made out of solid gold), a table of polished oak (i.e. … consisting of polished oak). One noun in front of another can also refer to a material or ingredient: a gold ring, an oak table, metal rods, banana cake.

Restrictive and non-restrictive meaning

  110   Modifiers before or after a noun usually help to specify its meaning exactly:

(A)

(B)

the children

the children who live next door

a king

a king of Denmark

buttered toast

hot buttered toast

these books

these latest history books

In each case, phrase (B) tells us more precisely than phrase (A) about what the noun refers to. It narrows down or restricts the meaning of the noun, by saying what kind of children, king, etc. the speaker is talking of. This type of modifier is called restrictive.

  111   There is also a non-restrictive type of modifier which does not limit the noun in this way. Compare:

She loved to talk about her sister who lived in ris. | (RESTRICTIVE)

[1]

She loved to talk about her images | who lived in ris. | (NON-RESTRICTIVE)

[2]

In [1], the relative clause is restrictive and tells us which sister she liked to talk about – we must assume she had two or more sisters. In [2], where the relative clause is non-restrictive, the speaker is talking about one sister – we assume she has only one – and gives us the extra information that she lived in Paris. This non-restrictive modification is typically signalled by a tone unit boundary (see 37) in <speech>, or a comma in <writing>, separating it from the preceding noun.

Non-restrictive adjectives

  112   Adjectives, as well as relative clauses, can be non-restrictive. The clearest cases are adjectives before proper nouns: since a proper noun already has unique reference, it cannot be limited any further by the adjective (but see 93): poor James, 73-year-old Mrs Cass, the beautiful Highlands of Scotland.

Non-restrictive adjectives are not so clearly marked by punctuation or intonation, and so ambiguities can occur:

The patriotic Americans have great respect for their country’s constitution.

[3]

The hungry workers attacked the houses of their rich employers.

[4]

We might ask: Does [3] mean that ‘all Americans have great respect’ (non-restrictive)? Or does it mean that ‘only some Americans (those who are patriotic, as opposed to those who are not) have great respect’? Does [4] refer to all the workers and all the employers, or just to the hungry workers (as opposed to those with enough to eat), and to the rich employers (as opposed to the poor ones)? These sentences could have either meaning, but the non-restrictive meaning is more likely.

Note

The ordering of modifiers can make a difference to meaning:

her last great novel

[5]

her great last novel

[6]

In [5] great is restrictive, while in [6] great is non-restrictive. The meaning of [5] is therefore ‘the last of her great novels’, and the meaning of [6] is ‘her last novel, which was great’.

Time, tense and aspect

  113   We turn now to meanings expressed by the verb phrase. Tense and aspect (see 740–2) relate the happening described by the verb to time in the past, present, or future.

States and events

  114   We must first give some attention to the different kinds of meaning a verb may have. Broadly, verbs may refer

•  to an event, i.e. a happening thought of as a single occurrence, with a definite beginning and end e.g. become, get, come, leave, hit, close, take.

•  to a state, i.e. a state of affairs which continues over a period, and does not need to have a well-defined beginning and end, e.g. be, remain, contain, know, resemble, seem.

She became unconscious.

[event]

She remained unconscious.

[state]

The difference between event and state verbs is similar to the difference between count and mass nouns. As we saw in 62 for count and mass, these categories are based not so much on the world itself, as on the way our minds look at the world. The same verb can change from one category to another, and the distinction is not always clear: Did you remember his name? could refer either to a state or to an event. To be more accurate, then, we should talk of ‘state uses of verbs’ and ‘event uses of verbs’; but it is convenient sometimes to keep to the simpler terms ‘state verb’ and ‘event verb’.

  115   The distinction between ‘state’ and ‘event’ gives rise to the following three basic kinds of verb meaning (illustrated in the past tense):

————

(1) STATE

Napoleon was a Corsican.

·

(2) SINGLE EVENT

Columbus discovered America.

………

(3) SET OF REPEATED EVENTS (HABIT)

Paganini played the violin brilliantly.

The ‘habit’ meaning combines ‘event’ meaning with ‘state’ meaning: a habit is a state consisting of a series of events. We often specify ‘state’ meaning by adding an adverbial of duration (161–5):

Queen Victoria reigned for sixty-four years.

We specify ‘habit’ more precisely by adding an adverbial of frequency (166–9) or an adverbial of duration:

He played the violin every day from the age of five.

(All three types of meaning can be clarified by an adverbial of time-when, see 151–60.)

To these three a further type of verbal meaning can be added:

images

Present time: I adore your drawings!

  116   The following are the main ways of referring to something which occurs at the present time:

(A) PRESENT STATE (the Simple Present Tense)

I’m hungry.

Do you like my hat?

The state may stretch indefinitely into the past and future, and so this use of the simple present tense applies also to general truths such as A cube has eight corners.

  117   (B) PRESENT EVENT (the Simple Present Tense)

I declare the meeting closed.

She serves – and it’s an ace!

This use is rather specialized, being limited to formal declarations, sports commentaries, demonstrations, etc. In most contexts, one rarely has the occasion to refer to an event begun and ended at the very moment of speech.

  118   (C) PRESENT HABIT (the Simple Present Tense)

I work in two elementary schools.

Do you drink beer?

It rains a lot in this part of the world.

By ‘habit’ here, we mean a repetition of events.

  119   (D) TEMPORARY PRESENT (the Present Progressive)

Look! It’s snowing!

[1a]

The children are sleeping soundly now.

[2a]

They are living in a rented house (temporarily – for a short period)

[3a]

The meaning of the progressive aspect is ‘limited duration’. Compare the meaning of the simple present in these examples:

It snows a lot in northern Japan. (habit)

[1b]

The children usually sleep very soundly. (habit)

[2b]

They live in a rented house. (permanently)

[3b]

For single events, which in any case involve a limited time-span, the effect of the progressive is to emphasize the durational aspect of the event:

The champion serves. It’s another double fault!

The champion is serving well. (The service is a continuing, repetitive activity)

With states, the effect of the progressive is to put emphasis on the limited duration of the state of affairs:

She lives with her mother. (permanently)

She’s living with her mother. (at the moment)

  120   (E) TEMPORARY HABIT (the Present Progressive)

I’m playing golf regularly these days.

She’s not working at the moment.

He’s walking to work while his car is being repaired.

This use combines the ‘temporary’ meaning of the progressive with the repetitive meaning of the habitual present.

Other ways of referring to present time

  121   Three rather less important ways of referring to the present are these:

•  We can use the progressive aspect with always or a similar adverb, to emphasize that an action is continuous, or persistent:

Those children are always (= continually) getting into trouble.

This use carries with it some feeling of disapproval.

•  Temporary and habitual meaning can be combined to indicate a repetition of temporary happenings:

He’s chewing gum whenever I see him.

•  In special circumstances, the past tense can be used to refer to the present:

Did you want to speak to me? (= ‘Do you want …’)

I (just) wondered whether you would help me. (= ‘I wonder …’)

Here the past tense is an indirect and <more tactful> alternative to the simple present tense (see 136).

Past time: I’ve read your book – and I loved it!

  122   Along with the present-time meanings in 116–21 above there are similar past-time meanings: we have already illustrated some of these (see 115). But there is a special problem of past-time reference in English: the question of how to choose between the use of the past tense and the use of the perfect aspect. The past tense is used when the past happening is related to a definite time, in the past, which we may call ‘then’. Hence the simple past tense means ‘past-happening-related-to-past-time’.

He was in prison for ten years. (this probably means ‘Now he’s out’)

In contrast, the perfect aspect is used for a past happening which is seen in relation to a later event or time. Thus the present perfect means ‘past-happening-related-to-present-time’. For example:

He has been in prison for ten years. (this probably means ‘He’s still there.’)

The past tense: The parcel arrived last week

  123   The past tense refers to a definite time in the past, which may be identified by

a

a past-time adverbial in the same sentence,

b

the preceding language context, or

c

the context outside language.

(On these aspects of definite meaning, compare the use of the (see 83–5).) Examples of the three types are:

a

Chandra came to England in 1955.      The parcel arrived last week.

b

Joan has become engaged; it took us completely by surprise. (Here the past tense took can be used, because the event has already been identified in the first clause: has become …)

c

Did you get any letters? (Here we can use the past tense without language context, because it is understood that the mail arrives at a given time in the day.)

Note

[a]

Because of its definite meaning, a proper noun can provide the conditions for the past tense: Rome wasn’t built in a day. (a saying); Caruso was a great singer. (Here it is implied that Caruso is dead, or at least is no longer a practising singer.)

[b]

The past tense can sometimes be used when no definite time ‘then’ is easily apparent: Hello, how are you? They told me you were ill. Perhaps this is like c above, in that the speaker is thinking of a definite time in the past.

124 The past tense also implies a gap between the time referred to and the present moment:

His sister suffered from asthma all her life. (i.e. She’s now dead)

His sister has suffered from asthma all her life. (i.e. She’s still alive)

Adverbials referring to a past point or period of time normally go with the past tense.

Kites were invented in China in the fifth century. (see 129)

The present perfect: I have written the letter

  125   Four related uses of the present perfect may be noted:

(A)  PAST EVENT WITH RESULTS IN THE PRESENT TIME

The taxi has arrived. (i.e. ‘it’s now here’)

All police leave has been cancelled. (i.e. ‘the police remain on duty’)

Her doll has been broken. (i.e. ‘it’s still not mended’)

(Compare: Her doll was broken, but now it’s mended.)

This is the most common use of the present perfect.

(B)  INDEFINITE EVENT(S) IN A PERIOD LEADING UP TO THE PRESENT TIME

Have you (ever) been to Florence?

All the family have suffered from the same illness (in the last five years).

(C)  HABIT IN A PERIOD LEADING UP TO THE PRESENT TIME

She has attended lectures regularly (this term).

He’s played regularly at Wimbledon since he was eighteen.

(D)  STATE LEADING UP TO THE PRESENT TIME

That supermarket – how long has it been open?

She’s always had a vivid imagination.

In these instances (except for (B)) the states, habits, or events may be understood to continue at the present time; for example, the first sentence in (D) assumes ‘… it is still open’.

Note

[a]

In sense (B), the present perfect often refers to the recent indefinite past: Have you eaten (yet)? I’ve studied your report (already). In such cases, <AmE> often prefers the past tense: Did you study John Grisham’s novels yet? I didn’t make any lunch yet.

[b]

There is an idiomatic use of the past tense with always, ever and never to refer to a state or habit leading up to the present:

I always said (= have said) he would end up in jail.

Did you ever taste that seaweed?

The perfect progressive: I have been writing a letter

  126   The present perfect progressive (have been writing, etc.) has the same sort of meaning as the simple present perfect, except that the period leading up to the present typically has limited duration:

I’ve been studying for the exams.

What have you been doing, sleeping all day?

She’s been explaining to me what you’re doing.

The perfect progressive, like the simple perfect, can suggest that the results of the activity remain in the present: You’ve been fighting! (i.e. I can see that you have been fighting, because you have a black eye, torn clothes, etc.). In such cases the activity has continued up to the recent past, not up to the present. Unlike the present perfect, however, the present perfect progressive with event verbs usually suggests an action continuing into the present:

I’ve read your book (= ‘I’ve finished it’).

I’ve been reading your book (normally = ‘I’m still reading it’).

The past perfect: I had written the letter

  127   The past perfect (simple or progressive) means ‘past in the past’; that is, a time further in the past as seen from a definite time in the past:

The house had been empty for several months (when we bought it).

The goalkeeper had injured his leg, and couldn’t play.

It had been raining, and the streets were still wet.

Their relationship had been ideal until Claire’s announcement ‘I’m leaving – there’s someone else’.

The past perfect is neutral as regards the differences expressed by the past tense and present perfect. This means that if we put the events described in [2] and [3] further into the past, they both end up in the past perfect [2a, 3a].

They tell me that …

the parcel arrived on April 15th.

[2]

 

the parcel has already arrived.

[3]

They told me that …

the parcel had arrived on April 15th.

[2a]

 

the parcel had already arrived.

[3a]

When describing one event following another in the past, we can show their relation by using the past perfect for the earlier event, or else we can use the past tense for both, relying on a conjunction (e.g. after, before, when) to show which event took place earlier:

images

In these pairs of examples, both sentences have roughly the same meaning. Each sentence indicates that the first happening preceded the second.

Perfect aspect with infinitives and participles: to have eaten, having eaten

  128   Infinitives and participles (see 738) have no tense, and so cannot express the difference between past tense and perfect aspect. Instead, the perfect expresses general past meaning:

He seems to have missed the point of your joke.

[1]

More than 1,000 people are said to have been arrested.

[2]

She is proud of having achieved stardom while still a child.

[3]

Lawes was convicted of having aided the rebels by planting bombs.

[4]

Sentence [1] could be alternatively expressed:

It seems that he has missed the point. OR

It seems that he missed the point.

Sentence [3] could be otherwise expressed:

She is proud that she has achieved stardom. OR

She is proud that she achieved stardom.

In [4], an alternative way of describing the happening would be to use the past perfect (see 127):

Lawes’s crime was that he had aided the rebels by planting bombs.

There is no difference in the form of the -ing form, although the implied time and aspect may change. The same is true, for example, for the perfect infinitive following a modal auxiliary:

He may have left yesterday.

(i.e. Perhaps he left yesterday)

He may have left already.

(i.e. Perhaps he has left already)

Adverbials in relation to the past and the present perfect

  129   Some adverbials go with the past and others with the present perfect, for example:

•  The past (a point or period of time which finished in the past):

I rang her parents yesterday (evening).

My first wife died some years ago.

The fire started just after ten o’clock.

A funny thing happened to me last Friday.

I think someone mentioned it to her the other day.

In the evening he attended an executive meeting of the tennis club.

The conference opened on Monday, October 30th.

School began in August, the hottest part of the year.

In 2000 a new law was introduced.

•  The present perfect (a period leading up to present, or recent past time)

Since January, life has been very busy.

I haven’t had any luck since I was a baby.

Plenty of rain has fallen here lately.

Sixty-six courses have been held so far.

Up to now her life hasn’t been altogether rosy.

•  Either the past or the present perfect

The following pairs have almost the same meaning. However, in the first pair, the choice of the perfect suggests the speaker is speaking during the morning. The choice of the past, on the other hand, suggests that the morning is already past. But this is not a hard-and-fast rule.

Image

State or habit in the past: used to and would

  130   Used to (see 485) expresses a state or habit in the past, as contrasted with the present:

My uncle used to keep horses. (i.e. ‘He once kept horses.’)

I used to know her well (when I was a student).

Would (see 291) can also express a past habit, with the particular sense of ‘characteristic, predictable behaviour’. This use of would is typical of narrative style:

He would wait for her outside the office (every day).

The simple present tense with past meaning

  131   There are two special uses where the simple present tense is used with past meaning:

•  The ‘historic present’ is sometimes used in past-time narrative, when we want to describe events vividly as if they are really happening now:

This lady yesterday, she says ‘I can’t believe this …’

Then in comes the barman and tries to stop the fight.

•  The present is used with verbs of communication (hear, inform, etc.), where more strictly the present perfect or past would be expected:

I hear you’ve finished the building project.

The doctor says he thinks I had a mild concussion.

The progressive aspect

  132   The progressive aspect (see 119, 739–42) refers to activity in progress, and therefore suggests

(A)  that the activity is temporary (i.e. of limited duration)

(B)  that it does not have to be complete

The second element of meaning (B) is most evident in the past tense or in the present perfect:

Image

With verbs referring to a change of state, the progressive indicates movement towards the change, rather than completion of the change itself:

The young man was drowning (but at the last moment I rescued him).

When linked to a non-progressive event verb, or to a point or period of time, the progressive verb normally shows that the activity or situation described by the verb is still in progress, i.e. has started but has not yet finished:

When I went downstairs they were (already) eating breakfast.

Other examples:

I knew the person who was working here last year.

High winds and heavy seas have been causing further damage (today).

As I came in, Agnes looked up from the book she was reading.

I’m happy to say my arthritis is getting better.

Verbs which take, or do not take, the progressive

  133   The verbs which most typically take the progressive are verbs denoting

•  activities (walk, read, drink, write, work, etc.):

A small boy in a blue jacket was walking along the street.

I’m writing a letter to my sister in England.

•  or processes (change, grow, widen, improve, etc.):

Alec was growing more and more impatient.

I believe the political situation is improving.

•  Verbs denoting momentary events (knock, jump, nod, kick, etc.), if used in the progressive, suggest repetition:

He nodded. (one movement of the head)

He was nodding. (repeated movements of the head)

  134   State verbs often cannot be used with the progressive at all, because the notion of ‘something in progress’ cannot be easily applied to them. The verbs which normally do not take the progressive include the following classes.

Verbs of perceiving

  135   Feel, hear, see, smell, taste. To express continuing perception, we often use these verbs with can or could:

I can see someone through the window, but I can’t hear what they’re saying. (NOT *I am seeing … *I’m not hearing …)

Verbs which have as their subject the thing perceived, such as sound and look, can also be included here:

You look ridiculous, in that hat. (NOT *You are looking ridiculous …)

It sounds as if the concert’s already started. (NOT *It is sounding …)

Verbs referring to a state of mind or feeling

  136   Believe, adore, desire, detest, dislike, doubt, forget, hate, hope, imagine, know, like, love, mean, prefer, remember, suppose, understand, want, wish, etc.

I suppose I’d better buy them a Christmas present. (NOT: *I am supposing …)

I hope I haven’t kept you all waiting.

I doubt whether the standards of the schools are improving.

The verbs seem and appear may also be included here:

He seems /appears to be enjoying himself.

Verbs referring to a relationship or a state of being

  137   Be, belong to, concern, consist of, contain, cost, depend on, deserve, equal, fit, have, involve, matter, owe, own, possess, remain, require, resemble, etc.

She belongs to the Transport and General Workers’ Union.

Most mail these days contains nothing that could be truly called a letter.

Notice that all these verbs are used without the progressive even when they refer to a temporary state:

I’m hungry.

I forget his name for the moment.

Note

The verb have, when it is a state verb, does not go with the progressive: He has a good job. (not: *He is having a good job.) But have often goes with the progressive when it denotes a process or activity: They were having breakfast.

Verbs referring to an internal sensation

  138   There is a fourth group of verbs, referring to internal sensation (hurt, feel, ache, itch, etc.). These can be used either with the progressive or the non-progressive with little difference of effect:

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Exceptions where the progressive is used

  139   The types of verb in 134–7 above may be labelled ‘non-progressive’ but there are special cases in which you hear them used with the progressive. In many cases like these, it can be said that the state verb has changed into an ‘activity verb’ (referring to an active form of behaviour). Thus, in place of see and hear, we have the equivalent activity verbs look (at) and listen (to):

Why are you looking at me like that?

She was listening to the news when I phoned.

But for smell, feel, and taste, there is no special activity verb, so these verbs have the role of expressing activity as well as state meaning:

She was feeling in her little pocket for a handkerchief. [activity]

The water felt wonderful on her skin. [state]

Similarly: The doctor was listening to her heartbeat. [activity] He says it sounds normal. [state]

We’ve just been tasting the soup. [activity] It really tastes delicious. [state]

In the same way, think, imagine, hope, expect etc. are sometimes used as ‘mental activity’ verbs:

I’m thinking about what you were saying.

He’s hoping to finish his training before the end of the year.

The verb be can go with the progressive when the adjective or noun which follows it refers to a type of behaviour, or to the role a person is adopting:

She’s being very brave. (= ‘acting very bravely’)

‘She is being a hero over all this,’ thought Tom miserably. (= ‘acting like a hero’)

Note

Another exceptional case is the use of the progressive with hope, want, etc. to express greater <tentativeness> and <tact>:

We are hoping you will support us.

Were you wanting to see me?

Future time

  140   There are five main ways of expressing future time in the English verb phrase. The most important future constructions are those which use will or shall and be going to (A and B below). Of these, will is by far the most common option, particularly in <writing>.

(A) Will or shall (see 483)

  141   The neutral future of prediction is expressed by will (often reduced to ’ll), or by shall (which is <rather formal and rare> and normally occurs only with a first-person subject):

Temperatures tomorrow will be much the same as today.

We shall hear the results of the election within a week.

Will is particularly common in the main clause of a conditional sentence (see 207–14):

If the book has real merit, it will sell.

Wherever you go, you will find the local people friendly.

In that case, I guess I’ll have to change my plan.

But with personal subjects, will/shall usually suggests an element of intention:

I’ll see you again on Tuesday.

They’ll make a cup of coffee if you ask them.

(B) Be going to

  142   Be going to + INFINITIVE tends to indicate the future as a fulfilment of the present. It may refer to a future resulting from a present intention:

Aren’t you going to put a coat on? It’s cold out.

She said that she’s going to visit Vic at two o’clock.

She says she’s going to be a doctor when she grows up.

It may also refer to the future resulting from other causative factors in the present:

I think I’m going to faint. (i.e. I already feel ill)

It’s going to rain. (i.e. I can already see black clouds gathering)

I’m afraid we’re going to have to stop the meeting now.

In sentences like these last three, be going to also carries the expectation that the event will happen soon.

(C) Progressive aspect

  143   The present progressive is used for future events arising from a present plan, programme, or arrangement:

We’re inviting several people to a party.

She’s going back to Montreal in a couple of days.

What are you doing for lunch?

Like be going to, this construction (especially when there is no time adverbial such as in a couple of days) often suggests the near future: Charlotte’s giving up her job (= soon).

(D) Simple present tense

  144   The simple present tense is used for the future in certain types of subordinate clause, especially adverbial time clauses (when she comes in) and conditional clauses (if she comes in) (160, 207):

I’ll get her to phone you when/if/after she comes in.

(Notice, though, that the verb in the main clause has will.) Some of the conjunctions which go with the present tense in this way are after, as, before, once, until, when, as soon as, if, even if, unless, as long as. That-clauses following hope, assume, suppose, etc. can also contain a verb in the present tense referring to the future:

I hope the train is on time.      ~ I hope the train will be on time.

Just suppose the network fails. It will be a total disaster.

Apart from these cases, the simple present is used (but not very often) for future events which are seen as absolutely certain, because they are determined in advance by calendar or timetable, or because they are part of an unalterable plan:

Tomorrow is Wednesday.

The term finishes at the beginning of July.

Actually the match begins at three on Thursday.

Miss Walpole retires at the end of the year.

In these sentences, the speaker treats the event as a fact, and puts aside the doubt one naturally feels about the future. Compare:

When do we get there? (e.g. according to the flight schedule)

When will we get there? (e.g. if we travel by car)

(E) Will/shall + progressive aspect (Shall is <rather rare and formal>)

  145   Will (or ’ll or shall) followed by the progressive can be used in a regular way to add the temporary meaning of the progressive to the future meaning of the will construction (see 141):

Don’t call her at seven o’clock – they’ll be eating dinner then.

But in addition, we can use the will + progressive construction in a special way to refer to a future event which will take place ‘as a matter of course’, especially in the near future:

What do you think you’ll be doing at school today?

We will be taking part in an international conference on global warming on January 30th.

This is particularly useful for avoiding the suggestion of intention in the simple will-construction. It can therefore be <more tentative and polite>:

When will you come to see us again?

[4]

When will you be coming to see us again? <more tentative>

[5]

Sentence [4] is most likely to be a question about the hearer’s intentions, while sentence [5] simply asks the hearer to predict the time of the next visit.

Be to, be about to, be on the point of

  146   Some less common ways of expressing future meaning are illustrated here:

Jaguar is to launch a new saloon model, the XJ 4.0S. <rather formal>

I’m about to write the director a nasty letter.

She was just on the point of moving when the message arrived.

Be + to-infinitive signifies a plan for the future (especially an official arrangement), while both be about to and be on the point of both emphasize the nearness of a future event.

The future in the past

  147   We can put the future constructions already mentioned (except the simple present) into the past tense. We then arrive at a ‘future in the past’ meaning (i.e. future seen from a viewpoint in the past). But such a meaning, e.g. with was going to and was about to, usually conveys the idea that the anticipated happening did not take place:

They were just going to arrest him, when he escaped from the building.

The priceless tapestry was about to catch fire, but was fortunately saved through the prompt action of the fire service.

Was/were to and would can refer to the fulfilled future in the past, but in this sense they are rather rare and <literary> in style:

After defeating Pompey’s supporters, Caesar returned to Italy and proclaimed himself the permanent ‘dictator’ of Rome. He was to pay dearly for his ambition in due course: a year later one of his best friends, Marcus Brutus, would lead a successful plot to assassinate him.

For a series of events like this, the ordinary past tense can also be used throughout: returned, … paid, … led, etc.

Note

The future in the past is often expressed by would, was going to, etc. in reported speech (see 264–8).

The past in the future

  148   The past in the future is expressed by will + perfect infinitive:

I am hoping that by the end of the month you will have finished your report.

In three months’ time, the plant will have taken root.

In subordinate clauses which allow the simple present for future time (see 144), the present perfect can express past in the future:

Phone me later, when you have finished your dinner.

Summary

  149   In conclusion, here is a table summarising some of the commonest meanings expressed through tense and aspect. The symbols used are explained first.

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Time-when

  151   Notions of time-when are expressed either by tense, aspect, and auxiliaries in the verb phrase, or by adverbials. The adverbial can be of a number of types:

They fixed the radiator yesterday.

(ADVERB)

She phoned on Thursday.

(PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE)

Jennifer’s coming to lunch next week.

(NOUN PHRASE)

Twelve months ago he found himself without a job.

(NOUN PHRASE + ago, back, etc.)

We met several years ago while I was working in China.

(ADVERBIAL CLAUSE)

Such time expressions normally have an adverbial function in the sentence (see 451), but they can also act as the modifier in a noun phrase (the meeting yesterday; yesterday’s meeting), and occasionally as subject or complement: The day after tomorrow will be Friday.

Time-when adverbials answer the question ‘When?’ Thus all the adverbials listed above could answer the questions When did they fix it? When did she phone?, etc. It is most useful to begin the study of time-when with prepositional phrases.

At, on, in and during ‘

  152   At is used for points of time, and on and in for periods of time. In general, on is used for days, and in (or during) for periods longer or shorter than a day:

Clock time:

at 10 o’clock, at 6.30 p.m., at noon

Days:

on Sunday, (on) the following day

Other periods:

in/during the morning/April/the nineteenth century during (the) spring/2002/the Stone Age

Some examples:

Her father arrived home at six o’clock.

A meeting will be held at 12.45 p.m. in the Committee Room.

We’re going to the cottage on Sunday.

In the summer, roses climb the walls of the courtyard and in autumn ∥ the fall the country smell of burning leaves hangs in the air.

Many varieties of shrubs blossom during April and May.

For periods identified by their beginning and ending points, between is used:

Between 1918 and 1939 many people in the West lost their faith in democracy.

In and during

  153    In and during are more or less equivalent:

He had been an airman in/during the Second World War.

You can come back tomorrow in/during visiting hours.

Only during can be used to mean ‘in the course of’ before nouns like stay, visit, meal, conversation, etc. referring to an event lasting some time:

We went to the zoo during our stay in Washington.

During the peace talks, there was a complete news blackout.

The Mayor always falls asleep during the after-dinner speeches.

Note

The preposition in (or within <more formal>) can have the meaning ‘before the end of’ a specified length of time:

Phileas Fogg travelled round the world in eighty days.

Phone me again within a week. (OR: Phone me again in a week’s time.)

Exceptions: at, on, and by

  154  •  At can be used for periods identified vaguely, as in at that time, at breakfast time, at night; also for short holiday periods (at Christmas, at Easter). In <BrE>, at the weekend is used, but in <AmE> on the weekend.

Cars belonging to visitors at a local beauty spot were broken into at || on the weekend.

•  On is used before morning, afternoon, evening, and night when these periods are identified by the day they belong to: on Monday night, on the following evening, but in the evening/night. (On omitting the definite article in such time expressions, see 475.)

A Yamaha motorbike was stolen from the Kwik Save car park on Saturday morning.

•  By day and by night are idioms which can replace during the day/ night with some activities such as travelling:

We travelled by night and rested by day.

Omitting the preposition

  155   We almost always leave out the preposition before phrases beginning last, next, this, that; also before today, yesterday, tomorrow:

He enjoyed coming out with us last Saturday.

Next time you’re in town, phone me at this number.

We can’t afford to go abroad this year.

That day I had nothing important to do.

See you tomorrow!

The phrases at this/that time, on this/that occasion are however exceptions:

On that occasion the government was saved by the intervention of the Liberal Democrats. <rather formal>

In <informal> English, we also usually leave out the preposition in phrases pointing to a time related indirectly to the present moment, or to a time before or after a definite time in the past or future:

I met her (on) the day after her birthday.

She got married (in)the year after her graduation.

(During) the week before last, I was at a conference in Warsaw.

The festival will be held (in) the following spring.

The preposition is also sometimes omitted directly before days of the week:

I’ll see you (on) Wednesday, then.

Well, Iris is there (on) Wednesdays and Fridays. (see 167 Note)

This omission is especially common in <informal AmE>.

Time relationships: before, after, by, etc.

  156  •  Before and after (as prepositions, adverbs, and conjunctions) indicate a relation of one time or event to another, as in:

The service was so much better before the war. (before = preposition)

We’d never met her before. (before = adverb = ‘before that time’)

Before she had gone very far, she heard a noise. (before = conjunction)

The secretary had left immediately after the meeting. (after = preposition)

After they had gone, there was an awkward little silence. (after = conjunction)

Before and after have opposite meanings, so the following are equivalent:

She arrived after the play started.

∼ The play started before she arrived.

•  By identifies a time when the result of an event is in existence (‘not later than’):

By Friday I was exhausted. (i.e. I became exhausted in the period that ended on Friday)

Please send me the tickets by next week. (i.e. I want to have the tickets not later than next week)

•  Already, still, yet, and any more are related in meaning to by-phrases.

Already and yet require the perfect aspect (or the Simple Past in <AmE>) when referring to a single event: They have already left; Have you eaten yet? With state verbs and with the progressive aspect, they can occur with the present tense: I know that already; He’s not yet working. Note the negative relation of already and yet to still and any more:

He still works at the City Hall. (= He hasn’t stopped working there yet.)

He’s already stopped working there. (= He isn’t working there any more.)

•  We use by now often when we are not certain that the event has happened:

The wound should have healed by now. (… but I’m not sure)

Otherwise we prefer to use already:

We’ve already done everything we can.

Comparing prepositions of time

  157   Here, for comparison, are some examples of time phrases with a particular noun, night:

What are you doing, throwing stones into our yard in the middle of the night?

It often rains quite heavily in the night. (see 153)

During the night the rain stopped. (see 153)

At night I relax. (see 154)

By night, Dartmouth was a dazzling city. (see 154)

I shall have to work nights. (see 167 Note)

I’ll be there by Friday night. (see 156)

For several nights he slept badly. (see 161)

They walked all night. (see 162)

We’re staying on the island over night. (see 163)

Measuring time: ago, from now, etc.

  158   Ago following a noun phrase of length-of-time measure means ‘… before now’: We met a year ago. For a similar measurement into the future, we use from now, or in + measure phrase, or in + genitive measure phrase + time:

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In measuring forwards from a point of time in the past, only the first alternative is available:

They finished the job in three months. (i.e. from when they started it)

Before and after, and the adverbs beforehand and afterwards, earlier and later, can also follow a length-of-time measure phrase:

I had met them three months before (hand).

Ten years after his death, he suddenly became famous.

Time-when adverbs

  159   There are two main groups of time-when adverbs (see 456):

[A]

again, just (= ‘at this very moment’), now, nowadays, then (= ‘at that time’), today, etc.

[B]

afterwards, before (hand), first, formerly, just (= ‘a very short time ago/before’), late (r), lately, next, previously, recently, since, soon, subsequently <formal>, then (= ‘after that’), ultimately <formal>, etc.

Group [A] identifies a point or period of time directly; Group [B] identifies a time indirectly, by reference to another point of time understood in the context.

Examples:

[A]

Prices in the UK are now the second lowest in Europe.

She’s not in town much nowadays.

Is the show just starting?

[B]

We’ll see the movie first, and discuss it afterwards.

Lucy has/had just made the tea.

Mr Brooking was previously general sales manager at the company.

Anna was recently offered a job as top fashion designer for Harrods.

At the next election he lost his seat, and has not turned to politics since. (= ‘since that time’)

Time-when conjunctions

  160   The main time-when conjunctions are when, as, before, after (see 156), while (see 164), as soon as, once, now (that):

It was almost totally dark when they arrived.

We’ll let you know as soon as we’ve made up our minds.

Once you have taken the examination, you’ll be able to relax.

Duration: for, over, from … to, etc.

  161   Phrases of duration answer the question ‘How long?’ Compare:

[A] When did you stay there?

[B] In the summer. (TIME-WHEN)

[A] How long did you stay there?

[B] For the summer. (DURATION)

The phrase in the summer here indicates that the stay was included in the summer period. The phrase for the summer indicates that the stay lasted as long as the summer period. For with this meaning can also precede phrases of length-of-time, e.g. for a month, for several days, for two years.

Omitting for: I’ll be at home all day

  162   The preposition for is often left out:

I went to Oxford in the autumn of 1989, and was there (for) four years.

The snowy weather lasted (for) the whole winter.

For must be omitted before all:

Except for about half an hour, I’ll be at home all day today.

For is generally not omitted when it comes first in the sentence:

For several years they lived in poverty.

or when it follows a negative

I haven’t seen him for eight years.

Note

With the verbs spend, take and waste, for is never used:

We spent two weeks at the seaside.

It took me a couple of hours to finish the job. [Here the phrase of duration is a direct object, rather than an adverbial.]

Other uses of prepositions meaning duration

163 •  Over can be used instead of for for short periods such as holidays:

We stayed with my parents over the holiday/weekend.

She had such an unhappy time over Christmas.

What have you been doing with yourself over the New Year?

•  From … to identify a period by its beginning and end: from nine to five; from June to December:

Hayes worked for the CIA from 1949 to 1970.

•   From … through, in <AmE>, are used to make clear that the whole period includes the second period named. Thus from June through December means ‘… up to and including December’.

•  Up to often specifies that the longer period does not include the period named:

He worked up to Christmas. (i.e. but not over Christmas)

•  Until (or till) (see 164) can replace to in the construction fromto …: from Monday until Friday. But, with from absent, to cannot be used:

We stayed until five. (NOT: *We stayed to five.)

While, since and until

164 •  While is a conjunction meaning either (a) ‘duration’ or (b) ‘time-when’, depending on the kind of verb meaning (see 114–15).

a

I stayed while the meeting lasted (i.e. for the duration of the meeting). [stay is a STATE VERB]

b

I arrived while the meeting was in progress (i.e. in the course of the meeting). [arrive is an EVENT VERB]

•  Since as a conjunction or preposition also has these two functions:

a

He’s lived here (ever) since he was born (i.e. for his whole life, from his birth up to now). [live is a STATE VERB]

b

They’ve changed their car twice since 1999 (i.e. between 1999 and now). [change is an EVENT VERB]

It is important to notice that since normally requires the perfect aspect in the verb of the main clause:

I’ve been here in the laboratory since four o’clock. (NOT: *I am here in the laboratory …)

•  Until (or till) as preposition and conjunction has a meaning comparable to example a of since (the state verb sense). But it names the end-point (rather than the beginning point) of a period:

I think you’d better stay in bed until next Monday. (i.e. from now to next Monday)

In the negative, until can occur with event verbs, and is similar in meaning to before:

He didn’t learn to read until he was ten.

∼He didn’t learn to read before he was ten.

Adverbs and idioms of duration: always, recently, etc.

  165    The following adverbs and idiomatic phrases indicate duration:

always, for ever (both meaning ‘for all time’) (but see also 166)

since (‘since then’), also recently, lately (both meaning ‘since a short time ago’)

temporarily, for the moment, for a while (all meaning ‘for a short time’)

for ages <informal> (‘for a long time’)

Examples:

There’s something I’(ve) always wanted to ask you.

They thought their city would last for ever.

I’ve been suffering from sleepless nights just lately.

For the moment there was no woman in his life.

I waited for ages but your phone was apparently disconnected.

Since, lately, and recently indicate either time-when or duration according to the type of verb meaning:

They got married only recently. (= ‘a short time ago’)

He’s recently been working nights. <informal> (= ‘since a short time ago’)

Frequency

  166   Expressions of frequency answer the question ‘How many times?’ or ‘How often?’ The upper and lower limits of frequency are expressed by always (‘on every occasion’) and never (‘on no occasion’). Between these extremes, a rough indication of frequency (INDEFINITE FREQUENCY) can be given by:

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(Compare 80–1.)

Being more precise about frequency

  167   A more exact measurement of frequency (definite frequency) can be expressed in one of the following three ways:

•  once a day, three times an hour, several times a week (sometimes per <formal, official> is used instead of a(n) here: once per day):

They ate only once a day.

I go to the office five times a week.

•  every day (= ‘once a day’), every morning, every two years:

We went for long walks every day.

The board meets every week in Chicago.

•  daily (= ‘once a day’), hourly, weekly, monthly, yearly. Daily, weekly, etc. can act as adjectives as well as adverbs:

I read The Times daily.

A daily newspaper.

She is paid monthly in arrears.

A monthly magazine.

Notice the equivalence of:

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We can also say once every day, twice weekly, etc. Every other day/week etc. means ‘every two days/weeks’.

•  A further type of frequency expression involves the use of quantifiers like some, any, most, many (see 80, 676):

Some days I feel like giving up the job altogether.

Come and see me any time you like.

We play tennis most weekends.

He’s been to Russia many times as a reporter.

Note

There is an <informal> usage in which a plural time noun appears without any determiner: mornings, nights, weekends, Saturdays:

I always worked Friday nights.

This can be classified either as a frequency or as a time-when phrase (see 155).

On … occasions

  168   Frequency phrases generally have no preposition: we say every week, not *in every week. One exception is when we use the word occasion(s), which is <rather formal>:

On several occasions the President has refused to bow to the will of Congress.

It has been my privilege to work with Roy Mason on numerous occasions.

Abstract frequency

  169   Frequency phrases sometimes lose much of their time meaning, and get a more abstract meaning, referring to instances rather than times. Always and sometimes (for example) can be interpreted ‘in every case’, ‘in some cases’, rather than ‘on every occasion’, ‘on some occasions’:

Medical books always seem to cost the earth.

The young animals are sometimes abandoned by their parents.

Children often (‘in many cases’) dislike tomatoes. (roughly = ‘Many children dislike tomatoes’)

Students rarely (‘in few cases’) used to fail this course. (roughly = ‘Few students used to fail this course.’)

Place, direction and distance

  170   Expressions of place and direction are mainly adverbials and postmodifiers. They answer the question Where?, so that all of the following could be answers to the question Where did you leave the bicycle?:

Image

Place expressions occasionally also act as subject or complement of a sentence:

Over here is where I put the books. <informal>

You will see that the range of grammatical structures and functions for expressing place is similar to that for expressing time (see 151). Also notice that many words (e.g. the prepositions at, from, and between) have related meanings in the two fields.

Prepositions of place

  171   Apart from general adverbs like here, there, and everywhere, the most important words for indicating place are prepositions. The choice of preposition is often governed by the way we see an object, i.e. whether we see it:

Image

The difference between ‘surface’ and ‘area’ will be explained below (see 174–5, 183). We distinguish

•  ‘at-type’ prepositions, which indicate a point (A)

•  ‘on-type’ prepositions, which indicate a line or a surface (B or C)

•  ‘in-type’ prepositions, which indicate an area or a volume (D or E)

Some prepositions (such as across) belong to more than one of these types.

At-type prepositions

172 (A)  The place is seen as a point (i.e. a location which is identified quite generally, without being thought of in terms of length, width, or height).

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On-type prepositions: line

173 (B)  The place is seen as a LINE, i.e. is a place thought of in terms of length, but not breadth or height (depth):

Image

1.  The wagon rolled back on to the road. (ALSO written onto)

2.  The company headquarters was at a town on the Mississippi River.

3.  We turned off Greenville Avenue onto Cherry Hill Road.

4.  They were a hundred miles off the coast of Sri Lanka.

5.  Another man tried to swim across the river.

6. The power was off in houses along Smith Street.

On-type prepositions: surface

174 (C)  The place is seen as a surface, i.e. is thought of in terms of length and width, but not height (or depth). (The surface need not be flat or horizontal.)

Image

The surface is often the top of some object (on = on top of): He was lying on the bed; The book fell off the table.

1.  fall on (to) the floor

2.  the label on the bottle

3.  take the picture offs the wall

4.  a place off the map

5.  a walk across the fields

6.  looking through the window

Note

[a]  On etc. is also used for public transport:

There were only a few passengers on the bus/train/plane.

We can also say: He travelled by bus/train/plane, etc. (see 197, 475)

[b]  Notice also an apple on a tree, the ring on her finger (where on = ‘attached to’ or ‘adhering to’)

In-type prepositions: area

175 (D)  The place is seen as an AREA (usually an area of ground or territory enclosed by boundaries):

Image

1.  Crowds pour into the city from the neighbouring villages.

2.  They had found suitable lodgings for her in the town.

3.  The manuscript was smuggled out of the country.

4.  He stayed out of the district.

5.  We went for a walk through the park.

In-type prepositions: volume

176 (E)  The place is seen as a volume, i.e. is thought of in terms of length, width, height (or depth):

Image

1.  The girl stepped into the hall.

2.  The food is in the cupboard.

3.  He climbed out of the water.

4.  He was out of the room.

5.  The wind blew through the trees.

Note

<BrE> has out of but <AmE> usually just out in expressions like this:

She looked out of || out the window.

Inside, outside, within

  177   Inside and outside are sometimes used instead of in(to) and out of:

Were you inside the house when the fire started?

She was sitting just outside the surgery.

Within is a slightly more <formal> word than in, and often indicates a location bounded by limits, or by a given distance (within 3 miles, etc.):

Many prisoners died within the walls of the castle. (= inside)

He lives within a stone’s throw of the office. (= not beyond)

Put in, put on, etc.

  178   Some common transitive verbs such as put, place, lay, stand are followed by on and in rather than on to and into:

Jane put each object back in its allotted place.

She placed her hand on Kate’s hair.

Also, arrive goes with at, on, or in: The train arrives at/in Brussels at 7.15. (see 171, 180)

Overlap between types of preposition

  179   We can often use different prepositions with the same noun. But in such cases, the meaning will be slightly different:

My car is at the cottage. (POINT, i.e. the cottage as a general location)

They are putting a new roof on the cottage. (SURFACE)

There are only two beds in the cottage. (VOLUME)

Overlap between at-type and in-type prepositions

  180   For towns and villages, either at or in is used, depending on point of view. At Stratford means we are seeing Stratford simply as a place on the map; in Stratford means we have a ‘close up’ view of the place as a town covering an area, and containing streets, houses, etc. A very large town or city is generally treated as an area: in New York. At New York would be used only in a context of worldwide travel:

We stopped to refuel at New York on our way to Tokyo.

Parts of cities also require in:

in Chelsea (part of London), in Brooklyn (part of New York)

For continents, countries, states, and other large areas we use in:

in Asia, in China, in Virginia

However, the directional words to and from are preferred to into, etc. even for large territories, except where those territories border one another:

He sailed from Europe to Canada.

We crossed the Rhine into Germany.

At/in the post office, etc.

  181   For buildings or groups of buildings, you can use either at or in, but it is better to use at when thinking of the building as an institution – a place with a special function – rather than simply as a place. (Many such nouns with at take no definite article: at school, etc. – see 475.)

Image

Shout to, shout at, etc.

  182   At is used instead of to when the following noun indicates a target:

He threw the ball at me. (i.e. ‘He tried to hit me’)

Eddie threw the ball to Phil. (i.e. ‘for him to catch’)

Note also a similar contrast between:

‘Hey, you’, the man shouted at her. (suggests that he was angry with her)

Peter shouted to me. (suggests that Peter was trying to communicate with me at a distance)

Other contrasts of the same general kind are seen in:

He pointed his pistol at Jess. ‘Don’t shoot!’ cried the old man.

She passed/handed a note to the next speaker.

Similar cases are: aim [a gun] at, hand [a ball] to.

Overlap between on-type and in-type prepositions: sit on/in the grass, etc.

  183   There is a difference between ‘surface’ and ‘volume’ in:

We sat on the grass. (SURFACE: i.e. the grass is short)

We sat in the grass. (VOLUME: i.e. the grass is long)

Another difference (between ‘surface’ and ‘area’) is seen in:

Robinson Crusoe was marooned on a desert island. (SURFACE: i.e. the island is small)

It’s the most influential newspaper in Cuba. (AREA: i.e. Cuba is a large island, and a political unit with boundaries)

Position: over, under, in front of, behind, etc.

  184   Position is a relation between two objects, and can best be explained by a picture. Imagine a car standing on a bridge:

Image

•  Over and under tend to indicate a direct vertical relationship, or nearness:

The injured girl had a bad cut over the left eye.

The doctor was leaning over her.

On the other hand, above and below may mean simply that one object is on a higher or lower level than the other. Under and underneath often mean that one object is actually touching the other. In this respect they are the opposite of on top of:

The children evaded capture by hiding under(neath) a pile of rugs.

•  By and beside mean ‘at the side of’, but can also be used more generally to indicate the nearness of one object to another:

Uncle Harry chose a big chair by (= ‘near’) the fireplace.

Prepositional adverbs of place: overhead, in front, etc.

  185   The following prepositional adverbs (see 660) or fixed phrases correspond to the prepositions of position we have just dealt with:

overhead

(over)

above

(above)

underneath

(under)

below

(below)

in front

(in front of)

behind

(behind)

on top

(on top of)

beneath

(beneath)

Examples:

Florentines are delicious, with bumpy nuts and cherries on top, and silky chocolate underneath.

The sky overhead was a mass of stars.

Huge waves are crashing on the rocks below.

Mr Smart drove to church with a guard of mounted police in front and behind.

Some other positions: between, among, opposite, etc.

186 •  Between, among and amid are related. Between normally relates an object to two other objects, and among to more than two:

Image

But between can relate to more than two objects, if we have a definite set in mind:

Manila lies on the shore of Manila Bay, between the sea, the mountains, and a large lake called Laguna de Bay.

•  Amid <formal> means ‘in the midst of’, and like among, can apply to an indefinite number of objects:

The house stands amid trees.

Unlike among, it can also be followed by a mass noun:

Amid the wreckage of the plane they found a child’s doll.

•  Opposite means ‘facing’:

His house is opposite mine. (i.e. ‘facing mine, on the other side of the street’) [1]

•  Around (preferred in <AmE>) or round (preferred in <BrE>) refers to surrounding position or motion:

The police were standing on guard around the building.

About and around in <informal> English often have a vaguer meaning of ‘in the area of’ or ‘in various positions in’:

The guests were standing about/around the room, looking bored. [2]

There’s quite a lot of woodland about/around here. [3]

Note

Some of these prepositions also have corresponding prepositional adverbs (see 185). Compare [1], [2] and [3] above with:

His house is (right) opposite.

The guests were standing around, looking bored.

There’s quite a lot of woodland about.

Motion from one place to another

  187   In 173–6, those meanings illustrated by diagrams 1, 3, 5, and 6 involve motion. The prepositions in the other diagrams (2 and 4) indicate state. Some different aspects of motion can be pictured as follows:

Image

But the prepositions used to indicate position in 184–6 can also signify motion to the position concerned:

1

The bush was a good hiding-place, so I dashed behind it.

Image

2

When it started to rain, we all ran underneath the trees.

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Passage: We drove past the town hall

  188   The same prepositions can also be used, like through and across, to indicate motion towards, then away from a place (i.e. passage):

1

The photographers ran behind the goal-posts.

Image

2

I crawled underneath the fence.

Image

Other prepositions can be used similarly:

1

We drove by/past the town hall.

Image

2

We passed over/across the bridge.

Image

3

We turned (a)round the corner.

Image

Around and round can also refer more generally to circular motion: (round is more common in <BrE>, and around in (AmE>):

Image

Direction: up, down, along, across, etc.

  189   Up, down, along, and across/over represent motion with reference to a direction or axis:

Image

I crept silently along the passage.

He ran across the lawn to the gate.

She flung open the french windows and ran over the sodden grass.

They were rolling down the hill without brakes.

The royal couple went up the steps together.

She walked very quickly up/down the street.

The last sentence here does not necessarily mean that the street was on a hill: <informally>, we use up and down with practically the same meaning as along. (Downtown <AmE> means simply the central or business part of a town.)

Note

We can express repeated motion by joining two prepositions with and:

He walked up and down the room. (in one direction and then in another, repeatedly)

The oars splashed in and out of the water.

They danced round and round the room.

In such cases we can omit the noun phrase after the prepositions: They danced round and round.

Combining space and motion

190 •  Viewpoint: The preposition beyond makes reference not only to two objects, but to a third factor, the ‘viewpoint’, or place where the speaker is standing (in reality or in imagination):

I could see the town beyond the lake. (i.e. ‘on the other side of the lake [from me]’)

We can also express ‘viewpoint’ by using across, over, through, past, etc. in a sense similar to their ‘passage’ or ‘direction’ sense (see 188–9):

the people (who live) over the road

a café round the corner

an office along the corridor

the garage past the

supermarket

friends across the sea

the hotel down the road

the house through the trees

a man up a ladder

We can, if we like, specify the viewpoint by using a from-phrase:

He lives up/down/along/across the road from me.

•  Resulting place meaning

Prepositions which have the meaning of ‘motion’ can also have a ‘state’ meaning, indicating the state of having reached a particular destination:

David Stoddart gathered the ball and was over the line in a flash. (i.e. he had run over the line – in a game of rugby)

They were out of the snow now, but it was still very cold.

•  Pervasive meaning

Over and through can have ‘pervasive’ meaning, especially when preceded by all:

There was blood (all) over the sheets. (i.e. ‘the sheets were covered with blood’).

Soccer-mad males can be seen (all) over the city. (i.e. ‘the city is full of them’)

Through is restricted to areas and volumes (see 175–6). Throughout can be used instead of all through:

His views were widely echoed throughout Germany.

Abstract place meaning

  191   Place prepositions are often used in more abstract senses, which relate to their basic sense by metaphor.

In, out of (condition or inclusion): in danger, out of danger; in practice, out of practice; in a race, in plays, in a group

People never behave in real life as they do in plays.

Above, below, beneath (high or levels on a scale):

His grades are above/below the average.

He rejects such activity as beneath (= not worthy of) him.

Over, under (power, surveillance, scale): over (= ‘more than’) ten miles; under orders, under suspicion:

Ezinma wielded a strong influence over her half-sister.

Up, down (movement on a scale): up the scale, down the social ladder From, to (giving and receiving):

Did you get a letter from Leslie about this?

He gave a lot of money to his family.

Between, among (involving two or more people):

My sister and I share the place between us.

They agree among themselves.

Past, beyond (going too far):

Modern times have changed the world beyond recognition.

I’m past (= too old for) falling in love.

Place adverbs and their relation to prepositions

  192   Most place prepositions (except the at-type prepositions) correspond in form to prepositional adverbs (see 660), and in general their meanings correspond as well. Here are some examples:

We stopped the bus and got off. (i.e. ‘off the bus’)

Have you put the cat out? (i.e. ‘out of the house’)

The child ran across in front of the car. (i.e. ‘across the road’)

When they reached the bridge, they crossed over, looking down at the water beneath.

But some prepositional adverbs have special uses:

They travelled on. (i.e. ‘they continued their journey’)

The thieves snatched her handbag and ran off (= ‘away’).

A man came up (i.e. ‘approached’) and introduced himself.

You don’t see many parrots about nowadays (i.e. ‘about the place’). <informal BrE, AmE prefers around>

[In this last example, about is so vague as to be almost meaningless.]

Note

In addition to up and down, the following are adverbs of direction: upward(s), downward(s); forward(s), backward(s); inward(s), outward(s); homeward(s).

Distance

  193   Distance can be expressed by noun phrases of measure such as a foot, a few metres meters, ten miles, a kilometre kilometer, a long way, etc. These phrases can modify a verb of motion:

He ran several miles. [1]

They can also precede and modify an adverbial of place:

They live a long way away. [2]

The valley lay two thousand feet below them.

Here the meaning is one of static location. Notice the question forms corresponding to [1] and [2]:

How far did he run? [1a]

BUT: How far away do they live? [2a]

Manner, means and instrument

Answering the question ‘how’

  194   If you want to specify how an action is performed or how an event takes place, you can use an adverbial of manner, means, or instrument:

Image

You can ask a more specific question about the instrument with which an action is performed as follows:

What did you write it with? <rather informal>

What tools did the artist use to create this remarkable effect?

Manner

  195   The three chief ways of expressing manner are:

[A]  adverb (usually ending in -ly) or adverb phrase

[B]  in a … manner (or way)

[C]  with + abstract noun phrase

Most adjectives have matching -ly adverbs, and many adjectives have matching abstract nouns. Thus there may be three ways of expressing the same idea:

Image

Examples of manner adverbs and manner phrases are:

She stirred her coffee thoughtfully before answering.

The task was done in a workmanlike manner/way.

His father stopped and looked in a startled manner at his mother.

Joanna stubbed out her cigarette with unnecessary fierceness.

I answered without hesitation. (i.e. ‘unhesitatingly’)

‘Next year’, she replied gently, with a smile.

Like this, like that (or this way, that way) are phrases with the meaning ‘in this/that manner’:

I’m sorry you had to hurt yourself like this.

Please, Ralph, don’t talk like that.

Notice that in can be omitted before way in certain <informal> constructions:

Monica and her sister do their hair (in) the same way.

She prepared the dish (in) the way he liked, with slices of oil-bean and fish.

You can cook turkey (in) a number of different ways.

Combining manner with comparison

  196   A manner phrase sometimes expresses a comparison:

She sings like a professional. (i.e. ‘in the manner of a professional, as well as a professional’)

Sarah Morgan came into the room like a ghost.

Manner clauses introduced by as can be used in a similar way. Compare:

Image

They hunted him as a tiger stalks its prey. <formal>

In these examples, as can be replaced by like. However, like is <informal>, and is less acceptable in <BrE>.

Comparisons with unreal situations can be expressed by a clause beginning as if or as though:

Image

(On the verb form were here, see 277.)

Means and instrument: by and with

  197   •  Means is expressed by a phrase introduced by by:

You’re going to France by car are you? (see Note [b] below)

She slipped into the house by the back gate.

We managed to sell the house by advertising it in the paper.

•  Instrument is expressed by a phrase introduced by with:

She reached down and touched the lace with her fingers.

The young man had been attacked with an iron bar.

The verb use and its object also convey the idea of instrument:

She always opens her letters with a knife.

∼ She always uses a knife to open her letters.

The non-use of an instrument can be expressed by without:

You can draw the lines without (using) a ruler.

Notes

[a]  We sometimes prefer to replace a by-phrase of means by a different type of prepositional phrase, e.g. one of place:

[A]

How did he get in?

[B]

He came in through the window. (more usual than by the window)

[A]

How did you hear the news?

[B]

I heard it on the radio.

[b]  The article is omitted in by-phrases denoting communication: by car, by train, by letter, by fax, by post/mail, by e-mail, by radio (see 475).

Cause, reason and purpose

Direct cause: actors and causative verbs

  198   There are many different answers to the question ‘What causes such-and-such an event?’ The means and instrument, just discussed, may be said to be kinds of cause. More important, though, is the person who causes an event to take place, i.e. the actor. The actor is usually specified by the subject of a clause ([B] below), or by the agent in the passive ([C]) (see 613–15):

[A]  How did the fire start?

[B]  Some children started it. (i.e. ‘caused it to start’)

[C]  It was started by some children.

Start in [B] may be called a causative verb, and some children names the actor.

Many adjectives and intransitive verbs in English have a corresponding causative verb. The causative verb may match them in form:

The dam blew up.

The terrorists blew up the dam.

The road became wider.

They widened the road.

The tree has fallen.

Someone has felled the tree.

The supplies came in yesterday.

They brought the supplies in yesterday.

Other examples:

not causative

causative verb

adjective

narrow, open, strong, clear

narrow, open, strengthen, clarify

verbs

narrow, open, begin, rise, learn

narrow, open, begin, raise, teach

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  199   Sometimes, when the actor is not mentioned, the instrument or means takes the position of subject, i.e. the role of the ‘causer’ of the action:

They killed him with his own gun.

His own gun killed him.

They brought the supplies by train.

The train brought the supplies.

In the passive, the actor can be expressed by a by-phrase (see 613–15):

The dam was blown up by terrorists.

The same is true of instrument:

He was killed by his own gun.

Cause and result: because, etc. (see also 365)

  200   In answer to the question ‘why?’, you can indicate cause or reason by an adverbial because-clause, or by a prepositional phrase beginning because of, on account of <formal>, from, out of:

Because:

The accident occurred because the machine had been poorly maintained.

[1]

Because of:

She can’t go to work because of the baby.

[2]

On account of <formal>:

Many fatal accidents occurred on account of icy road conditions.

[3]

From, out of (mainly to express motive, i.e. psychological cause):

He did accept the award, not from/out of pride, but from/out of a sense of duty.

[4]

Other prepositions that sometimes express cause are for (mainly with nouns of feeling) and through:

He jumped for joy.

Hussein has missed five matches through injury.

Indirect cause as subject

  201   We can often make the ‘cause’ the subject of the sentence, using a general causative verb like cause or make:

The driver’s carelessness caused the crash. [active]

The crash was caused by the driver’s carelessness. [passive]

Other verbal constructions expressing cause are these:

Such slipshod security is bound to lead to trouble.

Many of these prosecutions result in acquittals.

We are trying to bring about equal rights for all people.

He argues that higher wages inevitably give rise to higher prices.

We can also express cause with a noun like effect:

The effect of higher wages is to raise prices.

Result

  202   Result is the opposite of cause (compare [3] in 200):

Icy conditions cause many accidents.

[cause]

∼ Many accidents result from icy conditions.

[result]

Notice also that result in and result from are opposites:

The celebrations resulted in a serious riot.

∼ A serious riot resulted from the celebrations.

Result can be expressed by a clause beginning with so that, or just so [so is more <informal> than so that]:

The cleaner has gone on holiday || vacation so (that) everything is so dirty.

This is another way of saying:

Everything is so dirty because the cleaner has gone on holiday || vacation.

Purpose

  203   The intended result (see 323) or PURPOSE of an action is described by an adverbial of purpose, usually a to-infinitive clause:

He left early to catch the last train.

Penelope leaned forward to examine the letter more closely.

To improve the railway service, they are electrifying all the main lines.

An adverbial of purpose may also be a finite verb clause beginning so that:

They advertised the concert so that everyone should know about it. (The so that-clause often contains would or should, see 280.)

In order that is a <more formal> alternative for so that:

They advertised the concert in order that everyone should know about it.

In <informal BrE>, in case can introduce the idea of negative purpose (compare 208):

He left early in case he should miss the last train. (i.e. ‘… so that he should not miss it’)

Reason and consequence: because (of), as, since, etc.

  204   Because, because of, and on account of can express reason as well as cause. Cause and reason are overlapping notions (both answering the question Why?), but the difference between them is that cause concerns the events themselves, while reason concerns the way a person interprets the events, and acts upon this interpretation:

We have lunch early on Saturday because the girls are always in a hurry to go out.

We decided to stay and watch the procession – but Amy, because of her height, could see nothing.

The contest was abandoned on account of bad weather conditions. <formal>

Reason can also be expressed by as-clauses and since-clauses:

As Jane was the eldest, she had to look after her brothers and sisters.

The report is out of date – which is hardly surprising, since it was published in 1989.

The main clause indicates the consequence of the reason clause.

Now that and seeing that, etc.

  205   Now that and seeing that are conjunctions which have a meaning very close to as and since, except that now that also has an element of time meaning:

We hope to see much more of you now that you’re living in Vicksburg.

Seeing that he could not persuade the other members of the committee, he gave in to their demands.

Another <more formal> way to express the same idea is a participle clause (see 493):

The weather having improved, the game was enjoyed by players and spectators alike. <formal>

Being a man of fixed views, he refused to listen to our arguments. <rather formal>

Yet another construction expressing reason is a for-phrase, following certain adjectives and verbs of emotion and attitude:

She laughed at herself for being so silly and self-pitying.

They were praised for their outspoken defence of free speech. (‘because of their …’)

The following prepositions also express cause or reason: due to, owing to.

Linking adverbials: therefore, hence, etc.

  206   Also important are linking adverbials of cause or reason (see 360, 365) meaning ‘because of that’ or ‘for that reason’: therefore, thus, accordingly, hence, and consequently are <formal>, whereas so is <informal>:

Very shortly afterwards, however, he began to suffer from attacks of angina pectoris. Accordingly, he was excused all serious exertion. <formal, written>

After all, Glasgow was where she really belonged. So this year she had decided to spend her annual holiday in the city. <informal>

A linking adverbial corresponding to seeing that (205) is in that case:

[A]  The weather has improved.

[B]  In that case, we can go out and enjoy our game.

Condition and contrast

Open and hypothetical conditions: if, etc.

  207   Conditional clauses are related to reason clauses, but they discuss the consequence of something which may or may not be a real event. Notice the difference between:

I’ll lend Peter the money because he needs it. [1]

I’ll lend Peter the money if he needs it. [2]

The speaker of sentence [1] knows that Peter needs the money, while the speaker of [2] does not know whether he does. A sentence like [2] expresses what we call an open condition, because the truth or falsehood of what the sentence describes is ‘open’, i.e. unknown. The conditional clause often precedes the main clause:

If you feel seasick, take one of these pills.

There is another type of conditional sentence, which expresses an unreal or hypothetical condition. For this type of sentence the speaker assumes the falsehood or unlikelihood of what is described:

I would lend Peter the money if he needed it.

[3]

I would have lent Peter the money if he had needed it.

[4]

You’d be bored if you had no children.

[5]

The speaker’s assumptions are [3] ‘he doesn’t need the money’, [4] ‘he didn’t need the money’ (on some past occasion) and [5] ‘you do have children’. As these examples show, the hypothetical meaning is signalled by the use of the hypothetical past tense (see 275), and past hypothetical meaning, in [4], is signalled by the past perfect.

In case (of), on condition that, provided that

  208   Condition can also be expressed by the conjunctions in case, on condition that, provided that, and the preposition in case of <formal>:

•  In case names a future condition which may or may not arise:

Take these pills, in case you feel ill on the boat.

I had to watch where I put my feet in case I fell.

•  On condition that specifies a condition to which a person must agree:

I’ll lend you the money on condition that you return it within six months.

Provided that and as/so long as are like on condition that in expressing a strong condition ‘if and only if …’:

Image

•  In case of is a preposition expressing condition:

In case of emergency, the simplest thing is to flick off the switch.

Negative condition: unless

  209   Unless expresses a negative condition. Thus we could change the emphasis of

I’ll lend Peter the money if he needs it. (see 207 sentence [2])

by saying:

I won’t lend Peter the money unless he needs it.

Note the equivalence of:

Unless Paul improves his work, he’ll fail the exam.

∼ If Paul doesn’t improve his work, he’ll fail the exam.

You can take a book out of the library and keep it for a whole year unless it’s recalled.

Negative hypothetical conditions can be expressed by but for + noun phrase or if it hadn’t been for + noun phrase (unless cannot be used in this type of context):

But for Jenny, we would have lost the match (i.e. ‘If Jenny hadn’t played well’, etc.).

Adam would have faced almost certain death, if it hadn’t been for his quick thinking.

Otherwise is a sentence adverb expressing negative condition (see 367):

I’m sorry I had a previous engagement: otherwise, I’d have been here much earlier.

Use of any, ever, etc.

  210   Because they imply uncertainty, conditional clauses often contain any-words like any, anyone, ever, etc. (rather than some-words like some, someone, sometimes – see 697–9):

If you ever have any problems, let me know.

Unless anyone has any questions, the meeting is adjourned.

But to express special positive bias (see 243), conditional clauses can contain some-words:

Help yourself if you want something to eat.

Clauses of contrast: although, etc. (see also 361)

  211   A further type of adverbial meaning overlapping with conditional meaning is that of contrast, also called concession. If two circumstances are in contrast, it means that the one (b) is surprising or unexpected in view of the other (a):

Image

We can link the contrasting ideas a and b by using the coordinating conjunction but:

The weather is bad, but we’re enjoying ourselves.

He hadn’t eaten for days, but he looked strong and healthy.

We can also put a and b together by making one of them into a subclause beginning although or though <informal>:

We are enjoying ourselves, although/though the weather is bad.

(Even) though he hadn’t eaten for days, he looked strong and healthy.

(Even though is slightly more emphatic than although.)

The conjunctions while and whereas can express contrast between two equivalent ideas:

While we welcome his support, we disagree with a lot of his views.

Elizabeth was lively and talkative, whereas her sister was quiet and reserved.

Note

There are special constructions for expressing the meaning of ‘even though’:

Much as I would like to help, I have other work I must do. (‘Even though I would like to help very much …’)

Absurd as it may seem, she grew tired of being a success. (‘Even though it may seem absurd …’)

In sentences like these, the conjunction as occurs in the middle of the subclause, after an emphatic adjective (absurd) or an adverbial (much). Sometimes though is used instead of as: Absurd though it may seem … These constructions can sound rather <elevated> and <rhetorical>:

Unarmed as/though he was, he bravely went forward to meet his enemies.

Phrases and adverbs of contrast: in spite of, etc.

  212   In spite of, despite <formal>, notwithstanding <very formal>, for all are prepositions of contrast:

We are enjoying ourselves in spite of the weather.

Despite her fabulous wealth, Sara’s only property is a humble house in the oldest part of Seville.

Notwithstanding state aid, the local governments are continuing to seek extra revenue. <formal>

For all his skill, he has accomplished very little. (= ‘Despite his great skill …’)

There are also a number of sentence adverbials (see 361, 462) expressing the meaning ‘in spite of this/that’: yet, however, nevertheless <formal>, all the same <informal>, still, even so:

The weather was absolutely dreadful; however, the children enjoyed themselves.

Britain was mopping up yesterday after one month’s rain fell overnight; yet we’re still in the middle of a drought.

He has, presumably, the main weight of local opinion behind him, not to mention the considerable resources of the French government. Nevertheless, the omens are not good. <rather formal, written>

Yet can be used in the main clause to reinforce the contrast made by the subclause:

Although he hadn’t eaten for days, yet he looked strong and healthy.

Note

The adverb even is used to imply a contrast with what we might usually expect:

Well, you know, even in Alaska the summers get pretty devastating.

The implied message here is that in such a northerly place as Alaska it is surprising to have hot summers, whereas (say) in Texas they would be expected.

Condition + contrast

  213   The ideas of condition (if) and implied contrast (even) come together in the conjunction even if:

I always enjoy sailing, even if the weather is rough. (‘You wouldn’t expect me to enjoy sailing in rough weather, but I do.’)

We will take appropriate action, even if we have to go it alone.

The meaning of even if is sometimes conveyed by if alone, or if … (at least):

If nothing else, (at least) two good things came out of the project. (‘Even if nothing else came out of the project …’)

Even if expresses the same contrastive meaning in hypothetical conditions:

She wouldn’t give me the money, even if I begged her for it.

Alternative conditions: whether … or, whatever, etc.

  214   Condition is combined with the meaning of either … or in the parallel conjunctions whether … or, which specify two contrasting conditions:

Whether we win or lose, the match will be enjoyable. (‘If we win or even if we lose …’)

They were guaranteed 40 hours’ pay per week whether they worked or not. (‘If they worked or even if they didn’t.’)

The meaning of ‘contrary to expectation’ is also present here, as the examples show.

A similar meaning is present in the wh-words whatever, whoever, wherever, etc.:

These shoes are ideal: I’ll buy them, whatever the cost.

[1]

I intend to support the nominee of the party at St Louis, whoever that may be.

[2]

Wherever he goes, he makes friends.

[3]

The meaning is that the statement in the main clause is true on any of the conditions covered by the subclause. Again, contrasting meaning is present, in that [1] implies, for example, ‘I’ll buy them, even if they cost a fortune’. The same meaning can be expressed by an adverbial clause beginning no matter wh-:

I’ll buy them, no matter what they cost.

[1a]

Two general adverbials with this type of meaning are anyway and in any case (= ‘whatever the circumstances’):

I don’t know how much they cost, but I’ll buy those shoes anyway/in any case.

[1b]

Degree

  215   Expressions of degree usually modify the meaning of a particular word in the clause. Degree is largely expressed by adverbs, which either act as modifiers of adjectives, adverbs, etc. (see 464–9), or else act as adverbials in clause structure.

•  modifying degree adverbs (see 465)

[A]

How hungry are you?

[B]

(Actually I’m) very hungry.

[A]

How soon are they leaving?

[B]

(They’re leaving) quite soon.

•  degree adverbs as adverbials (see 459). Here the degree adverbs usually modify the meaning of the verb (here agree):

[A]

How far do they agree?

[B]

(They agree) completely.

Applied to nouns, degree is expressed by quantifiers like much (see 220, 232):

[A]

How much of a dancer is he?

[B]

(He’s) not much of one.

<rather informal>

Degree expressions can answer the questions How? (for adjectives and adverbs); How much? (for verbs); and How much of? (for nouns). More <formal> questions of degree are To what degree? and To what extent? Applied to verbs, degree adverbials sometimes answer the question How far? and sometimes How much?:

[A]

How far do you disagree with me?

[B]

(I disagree with you) absolutely.

[A]

How much did she enjoy the ballet?

[B]

(She enjoyed it) immensely.

Gradable words and degree

  216   Not all verbs, adjectives, etc. can be modified by a degree expression. Degree applies only to gradable words, i.e. words whose meaning can be thought of in terms of a scale. Most pairs of words of opposite meaning, like old and young, are gradable:

[A]

How old is your dog?

[B]

He’s very old/quite young.

If you want to make the degree more exact, you can use a measure phrase (five years, six foot, etc.) as a degree expression: She’s five years old. He’s six foot tall. There are two main kinds of gradable words:

•  SCALE words indicate a relative position on a scale (e.g. large, small)

•  LIMIT words indicate the end-point of a scale (e.g. black, white)

Image

(For the idea of darkness, we also have the scale words dark and light.)

Degree with scale words

  217   The same degree expression can sometimes act either as a modifier or as an adverbial:

She was absolutely crazy about him. <informal> [MODIFIER]

I must say I agree with you absolutely. [ADVERBIAL]

In other cases a different adverb has to be used in the different functions: for example, very and too are limited to the modifying function. The most important differences concern scale words and are given in this table, which also shows the differences between types of adverbs modifying scale words:

Degree expressions with adjectives and verbs as scale words

WITH ADJECTIVE SCALE WORDS

WITH VERB SCALE WORDS

(A) Indicating extreme position on the scale

very (see 220):

He’s very friendly.

It’s a very tall building.

(very) much (see 220) a lot

<informal>, a great deal:

I like her very much.

(B) Intensifying the meaning slightly

quite, rather, fairly;

pretty <informal>:

She’s still quite young.

It’s rather expensive.

It’s a fairly modern motel.

She was pretty annoyed.

considerably, rather;

quite, a lot <informal>:

I quite enjoy the job.

Prices have increased considerably.

We talked a lot about old times.

I rather like her.

(C) Toning down or decreasing the effect of the scale word

a bit <informal>, a little, slightly:

She’s a bit upset.

The journey was slightly uncomfortable.

It’s a little surprising.

a bit <informal>, a little, slightly:

I’ve read a bit about it.

Prices have fallen slightly.

I know him a little.

Degree with limit words

  218   With limit words (see 216) the same adverbs can function as modifiers and as adverbials. The two main classes of such adverbs are:

•  Adverbs indicating that the limit word’s meaning is used to its fullest extent: absolutely, altogether, completely, entirely, quite, totally, utterly:

I’m absolutely positive it’s the truth.

I completely disagree with you.

I don’t entirely agree with what Mr Turner says.

We were utterly powerless to defend ourselves.

•  Adverbs indicating a position near the limit of the scale: almost, nearly, practically <informal>, virtually:

Mr Player was almost in tears.

I’ve nearly finished my work.

At the beginning of this term, she virtually had a nervous breakdown.

Johnny Mercer practically grew up with the sound of jazz and the blues in his ears.

Note

Notice that quite has two uses: quite (= ‘considerably’) goes with scale words (e.g. quite young), while quite (= ‘absolutely’) goes with limit words (e.g. quite impossible).

Degree with comparatives and superlatives

  219   The same degree words which modify adjectives can also modify adverbs. But comparative adjectives and adverbs are modified by the degree words which function elsewhere as adverbials (see 217):

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Superlatives can be intensified by degree adverbs like altogether and absolutely which apply to limit words:

It is altogether/absolutely the best show in town.

But very can also have an intensifying effect if placed directly before the superlative word (but not before most):

We want to pick the very best person for the job.

Very and much

  220   We have seen (see 217) that very acts as a modifier, whereas much acts as an adverbial. However, the adverb much on its own is of limited occurrence. It normally has to be preceded by another degree word such as very or so. Compare:

The novel has some very enjoyable characters in it. (MODIFIER)

I very much hope that you will accept. (MID-POSITION ADVERBIAL)

I enjoyed the party very much. (END-POSITION ADVERBIAL)

Many verbs cannot go with much alone: we can say (for example) I much prefer …, but not *I much like …. I very much like …, on the other hand, is acceptable:

[A]  I very much like her latest recording.

[B]  I (very) much preferred her earlier ones.

Positive and negative attitude

  221   Some degree adverbs, although they have the same meaning with respect to ‘scale’ and ‘limit’, tend to be distinguished in terms of positive and negative attitude:

POSITIVE ATTITUDE

NEGATIVE ATTITUDE

It’s quite warm today.

It’s rather cold today.

She’s entirely satisfied.

That is completely wrong.

The project looks fairly promising.

He felt utterly exhausted.

Fairly (= ‘considerably’), quite (= ‘considerably’) and entirely sometimes suggest a positive or ‘good’ meaning, whereas rather, completely, and utterly sometimes suggest a negative or ‘bad’ meaning. Thus fairly warm implies that warmth is a good thing; but someone who said It’s rather warm today, on the other hand, would probably be thinking that the weather was a little too warm. The expressions a bit, a little and a little bit also tend to go with negative meanings: These boxes are a bit/a little heavy.

Other aspects of degree adverbs

222 •  Some words can be used both as scale words and as limit words, e.g. the adjectives new, full, and empty:

Image

•  We can have a scale word and a different limit word dealing with the same area of meaning:

Image

•  A scale word often corresponds to one or more limit words, which intensify its meaning, and add emotive emphasis: for example, terrible intensifies the meaning of bad:

Image

Note

[a]  You can also intensify meaning by repeating the word very, or by adding very … indeed:

He was a very, very special man.

That is very strange indeed.

[b] Scale words and limit words are sometimes difficult to separate, because there is a tendency to ‘convert’ limit words to scale words in everyday language. Hence we sometimes hear expressions like too perfect and very unique. Some speakers, however, regard such expressions as illogical and ‘bad English’.

223 •   In addition there are negative degree adverbs (barely, hardly, and scarcely – see 584), and the any-word (see 697–8) degree adverbial at all (= ‘to any degree’):

I scarcely noticed him. (= ‘I almost didn’t notice him’)

I didn’t notice him at all. (= ‘I totally failed to notice him’)

Was it at all enjoyable? The text wasn’t at all difficult.

•   Apart from the degree adverbs listed so far, there are many degree adverbs which are more restricted in their use. These tend to intensify a particular set of gradable words, e.g. badly goes with the verbs need and want; thoroughly goes with the verbs enjoy, disapprove, dislike, etc.; hard goes with the verbs work, try, etc.:

They were both thoroughly enjoying their first tour of Greece.

I welcome this scheme, which is badly needed. (= ‘needed very much’)

Role, standard and point of view

  224   A gradable word can also have its meaning qualified in terms of role or standard. Using at or as you can specify the role which the gradable word implies; using for you can specify the standard by which the speaker is judging its use (gradable words in bold type):

Image

Image

Further, you can specify the point of view from which a word or phrase is understood:

Morally, it was not an easy problem. (i.e. ‘From a moral point of view …’)

In a way, I was very resentful about leaving. (i.e. ‘In one respect/from one point of view …’)

He is a good swimmer in a technical sense. (i.e. ‘from a technical point of view’)

These trials were termed ‘political cases’ in that the trial itself was a political act. <formal>

You can also name the person(s) whose point of view it is:

To his parents, his behaviour was astonishing.

Comparison

  225   To compare two things with respect to their position on a scale of degree or amount, use comparative words taller, happier, etc. or comparative phrases more careful, less careful, etc. (see 500). A following phrase or clause introduced by than can indicate the ‘standard’ against which the comparison is made.

Image

Sentences [1]–[4] have the same meaning, but are listed in order of their likelihood. A sentence like [4] is very unusual, and would only be said if we were comparing Jack and Jill in terms of their shortness.

Equal comparisons

  226   For an equal comparison, e.g. when Jack and Jill are the same height, we use asas instead of morethan:

Jack is as tall as Jill (is).

∼ Jill is as tall as Jack (is).

To negate equal comparison, we say not as … as, or not so … as:

Jill is not as tall as Jack (is). [5]

∼Jack is not so short as Jill (is). [6]

Again, sentences [5] and [6] have the same basic meaning as [1]–[4] in 225.

Comparative and superlative

  227   When comparing only two things, we use the comparative forms:

Jill is the shorter of the two children.

Jack is the taller of the two children.

When comparing more than two objects we use superlative forms tallest, most useful, least tall, etc.:

Susan is the tallest of the three.

Jill is the shortest of the three.

Tourism is our most important industry.

Things were being done in the least efficient way.

To define the set of things being compared, you use of, as above, followed by a noun phrase:

Miller scored the best goal of the game. (i.e. ‘best … of the goals scored in the game’)

Luxembourg is the smallest of the countries of the European Union.

The of-phrase is sometimes placed for emphasis at the beginning of the clause:

Of all the capital cities in the world, Bangkok is the one I would most like to visit.

To name the sphere or range of comparison use in with a singular noun phrase:

He was the ablest man in the civil service.

It was the worst moment in my life. (ALSO: of my life)

Other constructions which can specify the range of comparison with superlatives are (a) possessive determiners, (b) genitives, (c) adjectives and (d) relative clauses:

(a)  my best friend, her greatest success

(b)  the world’s highest mountain

(c)  the greatest living composer

(d)  the most boring speech I ever heard

Comparison with a definite norm

  228   Sometimes a comparison is made between an object and a definite standard or ‘norm’ understood in context (often through back-pointing). In such cases, you can use than that or as that:

Image

In [7] you can omit the comparative part than that altogether. For [8], you can also say: Is he THÁT tall? <informal>. The than-phrase is usually omitted when we are comparing not two different things, but the same thing at an earlier and at a later time:

All over the world the crime rate is growing worse (i.e. ‘worse than it was’), but in many cases the criminal is becoming more difficult to catch (i.e. ‘more difficult than before’).

  229   To express continuing change, repeat the comparative word with and:

Germany’s position as our principal ally grows stronger and stronger.

Many painters feel more and more out of tune with modern society.

Fewer and fewer families are working on the land these days.

Enough and too

  230   Enough and too are words indicating ‘as much as’ and ‘more than’ some (usually desirable) norm. The norm these words relate to can be indicated by a to-infinitive clause (see 493):

This new boat is big enough to cross the Atlantic.

This just sounds too good to be true.

Some of the new laws are too complex for the ordinary citizen to understand. <rather formal>

The viewpoint or standard for judging what is ‘enough’ or ‘too much’ can be expressed by a for-phrase:

Is the room warm enough for you?

The portrait was too big for the room.

Where the meaning is obvious, reference to norm and viewpoint can be omitted:

Are you warm enough? (i.e. ‘warm enough to be comfortable’)

We have been looking at all kinds of new properties, but they’re all too expensive.

So … (that) and such … (that)

  231   Degree or amount constructions with so … (that) and such … (that) (see 716) express a meaning similar to enough and too, except that it is more emphatic:

It moved so quickly that we didn’t see anything. (meaning roughly ‘too quickly for us to see anything’)

The bed was so comfortable that visitors always overslept.

He’s such a miser that he doesn’t even stick stamps on his letters.

The so … (that) and such … (that) constructions also add a meaning of result (see 202), expressed by a that-clause:

Mrs Lewis was beaten up – kicked so hard that three ribs were broken.

The interview was such a nightmare that I prefer to forget all about it.

So and such in these sentences add emotive emphasis, and this emphasis can also be expressed without the that-clause:

The delay was 'such a nuisance!

I'm 'so hungry! (see 300)

Comparison with nouns: more of a success, etc.

  232   The various types of comparison just illustrated can be applied to gradable countable nouns (like success, fool, coward) by the use of more of a, as much of a, less of a, etc.:

I’m more of a socialist now than before.

It was as much of a success as I hoped (it would be).

You’re less of a fool than I thought (you were).

He’s too much of a coward to tell the full story.

Proportion

  233   To compare equivalent tendencies, you can use an adverbial clause of proportion introduced by as:

Things got worse and worse as time went on.

As children get older women are more likely to work outside the home.

There is a more <formal> construction in which so is added to a following main clause:

As the slope of the table increased, so everything on it began to slide downwards, nearer to its edge.

Yet another construction expressing proportion consists of two clauses beginning with the + a comparative word:

Kids! The older they get, the more trouble they become.

Sandra couldn’t deny that, the more she thought about the question the more curious it became.

Notice that the here is not the definite article, but a kind of degree adverb (as in It was all the more surprising that she lost the third set). The comparative element of the clause has to come first after the, and so often requires a change from normal word order. Compare (for clause elements S, V, O, A, see 487):

Image

The subject and verb of the second clause, or of both clauses, can be omitted if their meaning is obvious:

The more tickets you can sell, the better. (i.e.… the better it will be)

The more the merrier. (proverb)

We’ll have to begin our journey early tomorrow; in fact, the earlier, the better.

Addition, exception and restriction

Addition

  234   To express addition we can use the prepositions in addition to, as well as, and besides:

Image

In a coordinate construction, the idea of addition can be simply conveyed by and, or (with more emphasis) by not only … but (also) (see 520). Thus [1] is equivalent to:

∼ The money (was stolen) and three valuable paintings were stolen. [1a]

Not only the money, but (also) three valuable paintings were stolen.

The adverbials also, too <informal>, as well <informal>, and in addition <rather formal> all have the meaning ‘in addition to that’ (where that points back to something mentioned earlier):

They ate a four-course meal: they also drank three bottles of wine. (i.e. ‘in addition to eating a four-course meal’)

∼ they drank three bottles of wine, too/as well.

in addition, they drank three bottles of wine.

The preferred positions of these adverbials are different: also prefers mid-position (see 451), too and as well end-position, and in addition front-position (but see 238).

So am I, etc.

  235   So can be placed first in the sentence and followed by inversion (see 415) of subject and operator. It then combines the meaning of also or too with the function of a substitute form (see 418):

I live close to the office. So does my secretary. (= ‘and my secretary does too’)

If the fascists had gained time to prepare for war, so had their enemies.

While so and too have a positive meaning, neither and nor have the corresponding negative meaning. For negative clauses, there is also the corresponding any-word (see 697) and adverb either <informal>, which occurs at the end of a clause. Note that so, neither, and nor cause inversion (see 417–18):

Image

Exception: except (for), apart from, etc.

  236   Exception is the opposite of addition: it indicates ‘subtraction’ from a general truth. This meaning can be expressed by a number of prepositions: except, except for, apart from, bar, but (but occurs only as part of a modifier):

None of us had any money except (for) James.

Apart from herself and the MacGregors, the house appeared to be empty.

In everything but title, he is deputy Premier.

All the heavy guns bar one were lost in the river crossing. (less common)

We can also use an adverbial clause beginning with the conjunction except (that):

The expedition was working well, except that no one could figure out who was the leader.

Otherwise and else are adverbs of exception:

You have a good tan, but otherwise (= ‘apart from that’) you don’t look like a man fresh back from sunny Italy.

I noticed that the attic door had been forced open but everything else (= ‘apart from that’) seemed to be intact.

In this sense, otherwise occurs as a sentence adverb, whereas else occurs as a modifier following a pronoun.

The adverb even expresses the negation of exception (‘not excepting’) normally with an effect of surprise and emphasis (see 213):

They stole everything – even the clothes in the cupboard. (‘not excepting the clothes in the cupboard’)

Even is also closely related to the notion of addition:

He knows several languages; he even claims to speak Chinese. (‘that in addition to all the others’)

Restriction: only, etc.

  237   The word only is restrictive: it combines negative meaning with the idea of exception:

He was wearing only his shorts. (= ‘he was wearing nothing but his shorts’)

Only James had any money. (= ‘no one except James …’)

With expressions of amount (see 70–80) and degree (see 215–22) etc., only means ‘no more than …’:

Only a few banks have published their balance sheets. (= ‘no more than a few …’)

I know her only slightly. (= ‘… no more than slightly’)

Other words with a meaning similar to only are merely, simply, just:

She did not reply, but merely smiled, admitting nothing.

I don’t mind who wins the contest: for me it’s simply a matter of curiosity.

This offer is more to me than just a job.

The restrictive meaning of only and just can be applied, in a slightly different way, to time:

I saw her only/just last week. (= ‘no earlier than’, ‘as recently as’)

Notice the contrast between only and even:

Only my coat was wet. (‘that and nothing else’)

Even my underclothes were soaked. (‘those as well as everything else’)

Ambiguity with also, only, etc.

  238   Adverbs of addition, exception and restriction (like also, even, only) often ‘focus’ their meaning on a particular part of the sentence, such as a noun phrase or a verb or the whole of the sentence following the subject. A sentence can be ambiguous, depending on the element that is ‘focused’: I only lent her the books. But contrastive intonation (see 400) can help to clarify the meaning:

(I didn’t gĭve her anything –) I only lènt her the books.

[1]

(I didn’t lend her the compŭter –) I only lent her the bòoks.

[2]

An example with also is:

(He’s not only a gòod áctor –) He’s also a succèssful actor.

(He’s not only a successful mănager –) He’s also a successful àctor.

(He’s not only a wrĭter –) He’s also a successful àctor.

(The parts underlined are those which are ‘focused’.) In writing, it is best to put the focusing adverb as near to the focused element as possible. Put only and even before it, and also and too after it. Thus you could pick out the meaning of [2] by writing I lent her only the books, instead of I only lent her the books.

Only and even in front-position focus on the next element of the sentence – usually the subject:

Only one of us had a sleeping bag.

Even the BBImage makes mistakes sómetimes.

Compare:

His wife àlso has a degree in medicine. (‘His wife, as well as he himself’)

I tòo thought he looked ill. (‘I thought so, as well as you.’)

Subject matter: about and on

  239   About and on can both indicate the subject of a communication or discussion:

She told me about her adventures.

She gave us an excellent lecture on/about European social history.

Have you any books on/about stamp-collecting?

Some verbs and nouns go with about or on, others go with about only:

speak about/on

teach (someone) about

lecture about/on

learn about

argue about/on

read about

write about/on

a quarrel about

a book about/on

a story about

a discussion about/on

ignorance about

On, unlike about, tends to be limited to deliberate, formal acts of speaking and writing, and also suggests a more definite focusing on the subject matter or topic. About can also be used of mental states: think about, know about, be sorry about, etc.

Note

Of is sometimes used instead of about: I wouldn’t dream of asking him; All you think of is money. But notice the difference between He thought about the problem (= ‘He considered the problem’) and He thought of the problem (= ‘He brought the problem to his mind’).

SECTION B

Information, reality and belief

Statements, questions and responses

  240   Why do we need to use language? Probably the most important reason (but not the only one) is that we wish to give some piece of information to someone who may not know about it already. Statements (see 696) are typically sentences which give information. Questions (see 681–4, 696) are typically sentences by which someone asks the hearer to give information. In this section, we discuss the ways in which information is given and received and we also consider people’s attitudes to information, and the reality it deals with. This means considering such notions as truth, belief, probability, and indirect speech.

Questions and answers

  241   In conversation, both statements and questions often evoke a response. For questions, the most natural response is an answer to the question, giving the speaker the information needed:

Yes-no questions (see 682)

images

You can generally shorten the answer by omitting some or all of the information already contained in the statement. Thus a shorter version of [1] is: Yes, it ìs or simply Yès. Shorter versions of [2] are:

No, it image

No, not yĕt.

Not yĕt.

.

Wh-questions (see 683)

[A] Where are you going?

[B] (I’m going) to the òffice.

[A] What’s this thing called?

[B] (It’s) a wire image

Here again, part of the answer (the part in brackets) can be omitted.

Questions about alternatives

  242   Yes-no questions are limited: only one of two answers (positive or negative) is possible. Wh-questions are unlimited, because any number of answers can be given, so long as they give information required by the wh-word (who, what, when, where, how, etc.; see 536–41). Another type of limited question is one which expects as an answer one of two or more alternatives mentioned in the question:

[A] Shall we go by tráin or by bùs?

[B] By bùs.

[A] Would you like cóffee, téa, or còcoa?

[B] Còffee, pléase.

Notice that the intonation rises on each alternative except the last, on which it falls.

There is a type of alternative question which is like a yes-no question in expecting a positive or negative answer:

images

Such alternative questions have a rather impatient tone. Another type of alternative question is more like a wh-question in form:

What would you like to image Cóffee, téa, or còcoa?

Questions with positive or negative bias

Questions with some, always, already, etc.

  243   Yes-no questions are mostly neutral as between positive and negative replies, e.g. when they have any-words like any, ever, yet, etc. (see 697–9). You can, however, use forms like some, sometimes, already, etc., to indicate that you expect a positive answer to your question:

Did someone cáll last night? (‘Is it true that someone called last night? I have reason to believe that they did.’)

(Compare: Did anyone call last night? (neutral))

Has she gone to bed alréady? (‘Am I right in thinking that she’s gone to bed already?’)

(Compare: Has she gone to bed yet? (neutral))

Do you sometimes regret giving up your jób?

(Compare: Do you ever regret giving up your job?)

For <politeness>, use some-forms in making an offer:

Would you like something to éat? (‘I expect you would!’)

Do you need some money for the párking meter?

The response here is assumed to be positive, and so the speaker politely encourages acceptance rather than refusal.

Questions in statement form

  244   You can strengthen the positive bias of a question by putting it in the form of a statement (using, however, the rising tone of a question):

You got home sáfely then?

I take it the guests have had something to éat?

These questions are rather casual in tone, as if you are assuming in advance that the answer is ‘Yes’. With a negative, such questions assume the answer ‘No’: The shops weren’t ópen? (You might say this on seeing someone come home with an empty shopping bag.)

Tag questions: requests for confirmation

  245   Tag questions (see 684) added to the end of a statement ask for confirmation of the truth of the statement. The answer expected is

‘Yes’ if the statement is positive.

‘No’ if the statement is negative.

If the statement is positive, the tag question is negative, and vice versa:

He likes his jòb, dóesn’t he? (‘I assume he likes his job. Am I right?’)

Nobody was wàtching me, wére they? (‘I assume nobody was watching me. Am I right?’)

If the tag question has a falling tone, the positive or negative bias is stronger, and the tag question merely asks the hearer to confirm what the speaker is already sure of. The sentence is more like a statement than a question:

It’s beautiful wèather, image it?

You’ve mèt my wife Ánne, hàven’t you? (said by a man introducing his wife to another person)

(See 246 Note on how negative questions are answered in English.)

Note

There is a less common type of tag question where both statement and question are positive: You’ve naged to telephone, hàve you? Here the statement expresses a conclusion which the speaker has arrived at from the situation. We can call them ‘just checking’ questions. The tone is sometimes ironic: So you call that hard wòrk, you?

Negative questions

  246   One might suppose that yes-no questions with a negative form assume a negative answer. In fact, such questions have a mixture of positive and negative bias:

Haven’t you had bréakfast yet? (‘Is it really true that you haven’t had breakfast? I thought you would have had it by now!’)

[1]

Can’t you images straight? (‘I thought you could, but apparently you can’t!’)

[2]

Won’t ànyone help us to clear úp?

[3]

As the examples suggest, this construction usually expresses some degree of surprise (or even annoyance). The speaker, it implies, would normally assume the positive, but now expects the negative. Thus a situation in which you would say [1] might be: you visit Mary at 10.30 a.m. and find that she is still preparing breakfast. Your earlier (and normal) assumption is that she has had breakfast; your later assumption (when you see her preparing breakfast) is that she hasn’t.

Note

Some languages answer questions in a different way from English. To the question Isn’t she here yet?, the English answer No means ‘She is not here’, while Yes means ‘She is here’: the answer is given to the underlying statement ‘She is here’, ignoring the negative grammatical form of the question.

Questions with more than one wh-word

  247   It is possible (though unusual) to have more than one wh-word in the same wh-question. In this case, only one of the wh-elements is moved to the front of the sentence (unless the two wh-elements are coordinated):

[A]  Who’s bringing whàt?

[B]  I’m bringing the drinks, and Gary’s bringing the sandwiches.

[A]  How and when did you image

[B]  I arrived by train, on Friday.

[A]  Who did you send those bòoks to, and whỳ? <informal, impolite>

[B]  I sent them to Tanya, because she asked me for them.

Polite questions

  248   You can make a question more <polite> (e.g. when addressing a stranger) by adding please, or by using an introductory formula like Could you tell me. These four questions are listed in order of politeness, from least to most polite:

image

(On can and could here, see 325.)

Responses to statements: backchannels

  249   Unlike a question, a statement does not demand a response. But in conversation, we often make a response to a statement in order to express interest, surprise, pleasure, regret, etc., or simply to show the speaker that we are still attending:

[A] I’ve just had a phone call from the travel agent … [B] Yés? [A] … you know those plane tickets to Sydney that you ordered for next Tuesday. [B] Mḿ? [A] well, he says they are now ready to be collected … [B] Oh, that’s images [A] … but unfortunately, he says there’s been a mistake … [B] Oh dèar. [A] Yes, apparently the plane doesn’t arrive in Australia until 9.00 a.m. on Wednesday. [B] I sèe.

images are casual alternatives to Yes. These ‘backchannels’ are particularly important in telephone conversations. Other signals of this kind are Oh? and Really?, to express surprise and interest:

[A]  I hear Paul’s getting married.

[B]  Réally?

Other backchannels are: ah, sure, quite, right, good heavens, oh God, that’s right (see 23).

Short questions

  250   Questions can be used as responses to statements, when the hearer wants more information. Like other responses, these questions are often shortened by omitting repeated matter. They can be shortened to the question word alone – for example, when we want to clarify the meaning of the previous utterance:

[A]

The old lady’s buying a house.

[B]

Whèn? / Whère? / Whỳ? / images house? / Whàt old lady?

There are also two-word questions with an end-placed preposition:

[A]

I’m going to write an adventure story.

[B]

What fòr? / Who fòr? / What abòut?

Similar questions are: Who with?, Where to?, etc. (These questions with end-placed prepositions are <informal> in style: in <formal> English we would say With whom?, etc. (see 537). All these shortened questions are rather <familiar> and abrupt. For greater <politeness>, use a fuller question: When is she going to buy it?, etc. Questions like these can also be asked when what the speaker says isn’t clear in some respect, e.g. where the meaning of a definite word like this or the is not specified:

[A]

Were you there when they erected the new images

[B]

images new signs?

Note

Answering a negative statement, use Why not? rather than Why?

[A]  Joan is very upsèt.

[B]  Whý?

[A]  She hasn’t been images

[B]  Why nòt?

Echo questions: requests for repetition

  251   Another type of response question is an echo question. Here we ask the speaker to repeat some information (usually because we failed to hear it, but sometimes also because we can’t believe our ears):

[A]

I didn’t enjoy that meal.

[B]

Did you say you didn’t enjóy it?

Here the request is explicit, but we can leave out Did you say, and simply ‘echo’ part or all of what has been said, using a (sharply rising) question intonation: You didn’t enjóy it? In these examples, brackets show how some repeated elements may be omitted:

[A]  The Browns are emigrating.

[B]  (They’re) émigrating?

[A]  Switch the light off, please.

[B]  (Switch) the images (off)?

You can also use a wh-echo question, indicating by the wh-word which part of the sentence that you didn’t hear:

[A]  It cost five dollars.

[B]  Hów much did (you say) it cost?

[1]

[A]  He’s a dermatologist.

[B]  Whát is he?

[2]

Note that the nucleus occurs on the wh-word in these questions.

Note

The wh-word can also be placed later in the sentence, in its statement position. Thus instéad of [1] and [2], you could say:

  It cost hów much?

  He’s (a) whát?

But such questions, again, are <familiar> and often <impolite>, unless preceded by an apology or mark of politeness:

Sorry, whát was his job?

I’m sorry, I didn’t quite hear: whát does he do?

General requests for repetition

  252   General requests for repetition are very commonly used:

images

A more explicit general request for repetition (e.g. where you have heard most, but not all, of what was said) can take one of the following forms:

I’m sorry, I didn’t quite hear/follow what you sàid.

Sorry, I didn’t quite gèt that. <informal>

Sorry, would you mind repéating that?

I’m very sorry, would you mind saying that agáin?

Omission of information

  253   The last section has already illustrated the general rule that we omit information which is already obvious from the preceding context. The rule is further illustrated by the following statement and six possible replies:

images

All these responses in some way lack the structure of a ‘complete sentence’ (see 695–6), but are acceptable because the structure omitted contains information already understood.

‘Incomplete’ sentences and formulae

  254   Elsewhere, it is the situation outside language which makes certain information unnecessary. Examples are the brief ‘incomplete’ or formulaic utterances you may hear in various situations:

Commands: Càrefúl! Òut with images Fàster! Not so fàst!

Questions: More cóffee? How about jòining us? Any gráduate students here?

Slogans: Republicans òut. Republicans for èver.

Exclamations: Goal! Good! Excellent! You lucky boy! What a pity! Shame!Oh God, what an experience! Poor you! Oh for a drink! Now for some fun!

Alarm calls: Hèlp! images

Sometimes, in casual <familiar> speech, you will notice that words are omitted from the beginning of a sentence. These are usually words which carry little information, such as a pronoun subject and/or an auxiliary verb. They are bracketed in the following examples:

Beg your pàrdon. (I …)

Want a images (Do you …)

Serves you images (It …)

Sorry I mìssed you. (I am …)

No wònder he’s late. (It is …)

See you làter. (I will …)

  255   In public notices, headings etc., a noun phrase, nominal clause, or adjective phrase often stands on its own:

EXIT

WHERE TO EAT IN LONDON

COLLEGE OFFICERS – PRIVATE

FRESH TODAY

MEMBERS′ HANDBOOK

SETTING THE NEW AGENDA

Prohibition notices are often put in the form of a noun phrase: NO SMOKING, NO ENTRY, NO PARKING, etc.

Also in some broadcasting situations, such as sports commentaries, a great deal of grammatical structure is omitted. This extract could be from a television football commentary:

Jagtman to Jaeger: a brilliant pass, that. And the score still: Holland 1, Germany 0. The ball in-field to – oh, but beautifully cut off, and …

Reported statements and questions

Reported statements

  256   To report what somebody has stated, you can use either quotation marks (direct speech) or a that-clause (indirect speech) (see 589):

Marie said: ‘I need more money’. (DIRECT SPEECH)

Marie said that she needed more money. (INDIRECT SPEECH)

Marie said (in this example) can be called the reporting clause, and the rest of the sentence can be called the reported clause. In direct speech, the reporting clause can also be placed after the reported clause or in the middle of it:

images

The subject can be placed after the verb of saying, as in [2], unless the subject is a pronoun. In present-day English, *exclaimed she is not an option.

Indirect speech

  257   In narrative, the reporting verb is usually in the past tense. In this case, certain changes are normally made in converting from direct speech to indirect speech:

1. Change present tense verbs into the past tense (to match the reporting verb).

2. Change 1st and 2nd person pronouns into the 3rd person.

3. (Sometimes) change pointer words (see 99–100): e.g. change this into that, now into then, here into there, tomorrow into the next day, and ago into before.

Direct speech (i.e. what the speaker actually said)

 

Indirect speech (i.e. reporting it from the narrator’s viewpoint)

 

‘I moved here two years ago.’

~

He explained that he had moved there two years before.

[1]

‘Our team has won.′

~

They claimed that their team had won.

[2]

‘I will see you tomorrow.’

~

She promised that she would see him the next day.

[3]

‘They can sleep in this room.’

~

She suggested that they could sleep in that/this room.

[4]

Notice that the change to the past tense applies not only to ordinary present tense verbs, but to the present perfect (has won/had won) (see 127), and to modal auxiliaries (will/would, can/could, etc.) (see 483). The shifting of a verb to an earlier time reference generally applies also to past tense verbs, which are shifted to the past perfect (the pluperfect) in indirect speech. Thus:

‘I saw them yesterday.’

~ He told me that he had seen them the day before.

But sometimes the shift does not take place (see 258 (3)).

Special cases

  258   There are four special cases to bear in mind in the shifting of tense in indirect speech.

(1) Past perfect verbs in direct speech are not changed in indirect speech: these verbs cannot be shifted ‘further into the past’:

‘I had seen Mac an hour before the meeting.’

~ She said (that) she had seen Mac an hour before the meeting.

(2) Modal auxiliaries like must, should, and ought to do not change since they have no past tense. But must can also be reported as had to:

images

(3) When the idea expressed in the reported statement can also be applied to the time of reporting, there is no need to change the tense or other forms:

The world is flat.’

~

Ancient philosophers argued that the world is/was flat.

This is because the question of whether the world is flat or round can apply as much to the present time as to the ancient world.

(4)  Some verbs of saying used in direct speech narrative cannot be so easily used in indirect speech. For example:

‘The game is up,’ growled Trent.

is normal in mystery and crime fiction, but not:

Trent growled that the game was up.

These verbs include verbs which emphasize vocal effect (like gasp, grunt, laugh, shout):

‘Give the poor girl a chance to get a word in!’, Jean laughed.

‘I’m done’, he gasped.

‘See for yourself’, shouted Derieux.

Other verbs like answer, declare, reply, say can be readily used for both direct and indirect speech, while verbs like assert, confirm, state occur mainly with indirect speech:

Stacey replied that it would bankrupt Forbes.

The club confirmed that Irons was one of its leading members.

Indirect questions

  259   The rules for indirect speech apply not only to indirect statements but also to indirect questions. The only difference is that for indirect questions, a wh-clause (see 590–1) is used instead of a that-clause:

Direct speech

 

Indirect speech

 

‘Do you images here

~

She asked him if (OR whether)he images there.

[5]

Did our téam images

~

They asked if (OR whether) their téam had wòn.

[6]

‘Why won’t you come with ùs?

~

He asked her why she wouldn’t come with thèm.

[7]

‘Which chair shall I images in?’

~

He wondered which chair he should images in.

[8]

Indirect yes-no questions ([5], [6]) are introduced by if or whether (see 591). Indirect wh-questions are introduced by the wh-word which begins the question in direct speech.

  260   Questions about alternatives (see 242) behave in the same way. The yes-no type of alternative question is generally introduced by whether in indirect speech:

‘Is it yóur turn or Sùsan’s?’

~ She asked him whether it was images turn or Sùsan’s.

There is also a type of indirect question in which the reported clause is a to-infinitive clause beginning with a wh-word (compare commands, see 336):

I asked him what to . (= ‘I asked him what I should do.’)

He wondered whether to lèave. (= ‘He wondered whether he ought to leave.’)

Denial and affirmation

Negative sentences

  261   When speakers want to deny the truth of something, they use a negative sentence containing one of the negative items not (or n’t), no, nothing, nowhere, etc. (see 581–4). The part of a sentence or clause which follows the negative word is called the scope of negation, and it is this part of the sentence that is negated. The scope of negation is here signalled by bold type:

He definitely hasn’t taken the job. (‘It’s definite that he hasn’t’)          [1]

He hasn’t definitely taken the job. (‘It’s not definite that he has’)       [2]

In these examples, the meaning is different because in [1] definitely is outside the scope of negation, while in [2] definitely is within the scope of negation. A final adverbial may or may not be in the scope of negation:

They weren’t at hòme | for the whole dày. (‘For the whole day, they weren’t at home.’)

They weren’t at home for the whole dǎy. (‘It’s not true that they were at home for the whole day.’)

(On the intonation here, see 33–41, 397–8.) Notice the difference in meaning between the first and second sentence in the following pairs:

images

  262   Inside the scope of negation, any-words like any, yet, ever (see 697–9) are used:

I didn’t attend àny of the lectures. (‘I attended none of the lectures.’)

[3]

We haven’t had images yet.

[4]

But we can also use some-words like some, already, sometimes after the negative word, and these words lie outside the scope of negation. Therefore the meaning of [3] is different from that of [5]:

I didn’t attend sòme of the léctures. (There were some lectures that I didn’t attend.’)

[5]

  263   Occasionally a negative word does not have scope in a clause or sentence at all. Instead, it applies its meaning only to a phrase or part of a phrase in the sentence:

No food at all is better than unwholesome food. (i.e. ‘Eating nothing at all is better than …’).

We not infrequently go abroad. (i.e. ‘We quite often go abroad.’)

They stayed at a not very attractive hotel. (i.e. ‘… at a rather unattractive hotel’)

Affirmation

  264   To place emphasis on the positive meaning of a sentence, we put the intonation nucleus on the operator (or first auxiliary of the verb phrase, see 609–12). This is done especially for contrast, when someone has suggested or assumed the negative:

[A]

So you two haven’t met before?

[B]

Well, we hàve mét – but it was àges ago.

[A]

What a pity Mary isn’t here!

[B]

(But) she ìs here.

If the response is not a straightforward denial, but contains new positive information, the new information is stressed by a fall-rise tone (see 43):

[A]

Surely they wouldn’t have

[B]

, but they còuld have taken stolen it? it by mistăke.

If there is no other operator, use do as dummy operator (see 611):

Oh, so you images stay after àll. I thought you were leaving èarly.

I’m afraid I don’t know much about cooking. But I bake my own brěad.

Denial

  265   To deny what someone has suggested or supposed, you can again place the nucleus on the operator, but this time on a negative one (can’t, didn’t, etc.):

So you hàven’t lost your keys! (‘I thought you had.’)

[A] When did he pass his exàm? [B] Well, actually, he images pass it.

When the negative is not contracted, the nucleus falls on not:

Well, actually, he did nòt pass it.

Short affirmations

  266   There is a shortened type of affirmation in which everything in a clause is omitted after the operator. This is usual when you are simply affirming a question or statement, and do not need to repeat what has already been said:

[A]  This book is interesting.

[B]  Yes, it ìs. (i.e. ‘It ìs interesting’)

[A]  I assume I will be invited to the meeting.

[B]  Yes, you wìll.

[A]  Can you speak German?

[B]  Well, I càn, but not very wěll.

[A]  Have I missed the bus?

[B]  Yes, I’m afraid you hàve.

To agree with a negative statement, use a negative operator:

[A]  Your mother doesn’t look wèll.

[B]  No, she dòesn’t, I’m afráid.

Short denials

  267   Shortened statements (in the negative) are also used to deny a statement:

[A]

You worry too much.

[B]

No, I dón’t.

[6]

[A]

I’ll probably fail my driving test.

[B]

No, you wŏn’t.

[7]

Notice that when we deny or contradict a statement, as in [6] and [7], we use a rise or fall-rise tone. Similar shortened statements are used to answer a question:

[A]  Can you speak German?

[B]  No, I’m afraid I càn’t.

[A]  The line’s busy. Will you hold?

[B]  No, I wòn’t, thanks.

More <formal> or emphatic sentences contain operator + not. In these cases the nucleus is on not:

[A]  Did she fail the test?

[B]  No, she did nòt.

To deny a negative statement, you can use the positive operator with a rising or fall-rise tone:

[A]

I understand most people didn’t agree with me.

[B]

Yes, they images

[A]

I won’t pass the exam.

[B]

I bet you images

  268   A denial can seem blunt and <impolite> unless we tone it down in some way. We can make a denial more <tactful> by only <tentatively> expressing the contrary view:

[A]

He’s married, isn’t he?

[B]

Actually, I don’t think he images

[B]

Ís he? I thought he was divòrced.

[B]

Are you súre? I had the impression that he was still images

Denial combined with affirmation

  269   The construction not (or n’t) … but is used to deny one idea and to affirm another, contrasting, idea:

He didn’t look at Captain Mosira, but stared at the ceiling.

The land doesn’t belong to me, but to the government.

We can also say:

The land belongs not to me, but to the government.

The land belongs to the government, not to me.

Notice a nucleus can be on the operator in both the positive and negative clause:

I dòn’t like mathemătics, but enjoy biòlogy.

Agreement and disagreement

Agreement

  270   It is all the more necessary to be <polite> when the other person’s judgement or opinion is in question. In agreeing with an unfavourable opinion, you may wish to qualify your agreement with an expression of regret, etc:

images

In other cases, you can be as enthusiastic as you like in expressing your agreement:

images

Tactful disagreement

  271   When you deny or contradict what someone else has stated, the effect is often <impolite>, unless the denial is softened in some way. You can soften it by an apology or by adjusting to the speaker’s point of view:

images

Partial or qualified agreement

  272   In discussion and argument, there is often a need to agree with one part of a speaker’s view, and to disagree with another. Here are some of the methods you might use to express this sort of qualified agreement (X and Y here stand for statements, and x and y for noun phrases).

Certainly it’s true that [X] drugs are a menace, but on the other hand [Y] we have to take a pragmatic stance.

I realize that [X] every form of taxation has its critics, but surely [Y] this is the most unfair and unpopular tax that was ever invented.

I’m in total agreement with you/Joan, etc. about [x] the need for international action, but we also have to consider [y] the right of nations to take charge of their own internal affairs.

Agreed, but if we accept [X] that narcotics have to be illegal, then it must (also) be accepted that [Y] tobacco has to be banned.

Strengthened agreement

  273   We can also agree, and add a further point to strengthen the argument:

[A]

The government will have to take steps to limit the number of cars on the road.

[B]

Yes, in fact I believe public opinion is now in favour of banning cars in the central areas of major cities.

Other ways of strengthening agreement (following utterance [A] above) are:

[B]

Yes, and what is more, it will have to curb the transportation of heavy goods by road.

[B]

I agree, and in fact one might go so far as to say that this is the greatest challenge facing the government today.

[B]

Absolutely. Actually, I would go further, and say most people would favour a totally new look at all aspects of transport policy.

Fact, hypothesis and neutrality

  274   We have considered the truth and falsehood of statements in terms of affirmation, denial, negation, etc. but there are many cases where truth or falsehood is assumed rather than directly stated.

Compare:

I’m glad that the minister has agreed. (FACT)

[1]

I wish that the minister had agreed. (HYPOTHESIS)

[2]

In [1], the speaker assumes the truth of the statement the minister has agreed, while in [2], the speaker assumes its falsehood. We will call something assumed to be false hypothetical.

Hypothetical meaning

275 •  A fact (or factual meaning) is usually expressed by a finite verb clause, as in [1] in 274, or by an -ing clause (see 493) or a noun phrase with an abstract noun:

I’m surprised that he made that mistake.

~ I’m surprised at his making that mistake.

~ I was surprised at his mistake.

A hypothesis (or hypothetical meaning) is usually expressed by the past tense in dependent clauses, as in [2] in 274, and by would (or ’d) + infinitive in main clauses. These two constructions can be seen in the conditional subclause and in the main clause of hypothetical conditions (see 207):

images

Notice that the past tense (saw, would) here has nothing to do with past time: its reference is to present or future time.

Past time, when combined with hypothesis, is expressed by the perfective construction had + -ed participle:

If we’d seen anything strange, we would have let you know.

Would in the verb of the main clause can be replaced by another past tense modal auxiliary:

If Monty hadn’t been there, you could have told (‘would have been able to tell’) the whole story.

Other constructions containing hypothetical clauses

  276   Apart from conditional clauses, hypothetical meaning occurs in a few other special constructions. The main ones are illustrated here (with the negative statements they imply in brackets):

It’s time you were in bed. (‘but you’re not in bed’)

He behaves as if he owned the place. (‘but he doesn’t own the place’)

It’s not as if you were all that fond of Alice. (‘You’re not fond of Alice’)

Suppose (that) the United Nations had the power to impose a peaceful solution. (‘It does not have the power …’)

If only she had kept her eyes open. (‘She didn’t keep them open’)

In your place, I’d have taken the taxi. (‘I didn’t take the taxi’)

Very often would is used where there is no if-clause, but where a conditional ‘if’ is implied:

I can’t let anyone see the letters – it wouldn’t be right, would it? (‘… if I let them see them’)

(There are special hypothetical uses of modal auxiliaries for tentative meaning – see 286, 322, 325.)

Other ways of expressing hypothetical meaning

Were, were to, should

  277   In addition to the past tense, there are three less common ways of expressing hypothetical meaning in subclauses:

•  The were-subjunctive (see 708).

I’d play football with you if I were younger.

If I were Home Secretary, I would impose no restriction whatsoever in such matters.

In <informal> style the ordinary past tense was can replace were with a singular subject.

•  Were to + infinitive:

If it were to rain tomorrow, the match would be postponed. <rather formal>

This construction expresses hypothetical future. Again, was to is an <informal> equivalent.

•  Should + infinitive

If a serious crisis should arise, the government would have to take immediate action. <rather formal>

The constructions with were to + infinitive and should + infinitive are slightly <formal or literary>, and suggest <tentative> conditions. They are in general limited to conditional clauses (and constructions related to conditions, like Suppose he should see us!).

Conditionals with inversion

  278   Another type of hypothetical conditional clause has no if, but instead begins with an operator (609) placed before the subject (inversion – see 416).

The three operators which occur in this construction are had, subjunctive were, and putative should (see 280 below):

Had they known, they would have been more frightened. <formal> (‘If they had known …’)

Were a serious crisis to arise, the government would have to act swiftly. <formal> (‘If a serious crisis were …’)

Should you change your mind, no one would blame you. (‘If you should …’)

These clauses with were and should are rather <literary> in tone, and can always be replaced by an if-clause: If they had known, etc.

Note

In the negative of clauses beginning with had, were and should, there is no contracted form: instead of *Hadn’t I known, etc. we have to say Had I not known, etc.

Neutrality

  279   In addition to fact and hypothesis, there is a third type of situation, in which the speaker assumes neither truth nor falsehood. We will call this situation neutrality. For example:

It’s best for Sarah to be patient.

[1]

I want all of us to agree.

[2]

In sentence [1], we do not know whether Sarah will be patient or not; in sentence [2], we do not know whether all of us will agree or not. In this sense, the assumptions are neutral. Infinitive clauses usually express neutrality.

Open conditions with if or unless are another case of a construction which is neutral with regard to truth and falsehood:

It’s best if Sarah is patient.

[3]

Unless we all agree, the whole project will collapse.

[4]

Sentences [1] and [3] have the same effect. Also neutral are wh-clauses, which in this respect sometimes contrast with that-clauses:

Did you know that the minister has agreed? (‘I’m telling you – the minister has agreed.’)

Do you know whether the minister has agreed? (‘Please tell me’)

There is a similar contrast between:

Yesterday, he told me that he had passed the exam. (‘So I know, already’)

Tomorrow, he will tell me whether he has passed the exam. (‘I don’t know yet’)

Doubt is another verb that can be followed by either a that-clause or a wh-clause. Not + doubt, on the other hand, expresses certainty, and so takes a that-clause:

images

Putative should

  280   We have already said that should expresses a tentative condition in if-clauses. This is true not only for hypothetical conditions, but for open conditions (see 207):

images

In other dependent clauses, too, should is used neutrally, to represent something as a neutral ‘idea’ rather than as a ‘fact’. We call this use of should putative. Contrast these two sentences:

FACT:

The fact is that the referendum will be held next month.

 

We know that the referendum will be held next month.

IDEA:

The idea is that the referendum should be held next month.

Someone is suggesting that the referendum should be held next month.

  281   Putative should occurs quite widely in that-clauses (see 589), especially in <BrE>:

It’s a pity that you should have to leave.

[4]

I’m surprised that there should be any objection.

[5]

It’s unthinkable that he should resign.

[6]

What gets me is that men should be able to threaten ordinary peaceful citizens with bombs and bullets.

[7]

In some of these sentences, there is no neutrality: for example, the speaker of [5] assumes that ‘somebody objects’. Even so, there is a difference between [5] and the factual sentence I’m surprised that there is an objection, because in [5] it is the ‘very idea’ of the objection that surprises me, not the objection as a fact. Putative should in [4]–[7] has a more emotional tone.

Note

[a]

Putative should is also found in some questions and exclamations:

How should I know?

Why should she have to resign?

[b]

In some sentences, putative should is difficult to distinguish from should in the sense of ‘ought to’ (292, 328): He has urged that private firearms should be banned.

The subjunctive

  282   The subjunctive (see 706–8) also has neutral meaning. It can be used:

•  In some that-clauses, where the clause expresses an intention (this is especially common in <AmE>):

Congress has voted /decided /decreed /insisted that the present law continue to operate.

Here putative should + infinitive can also be used: … should continue to operate.

•  In some conditional, contrast and purpose clauses (see 207–14):

Whatever be the reasons for it, we cannot tolerate disloyalty. <formal, elevated>

     (= ‘Whatever the reasons for it may be …’)

•  In certain idioms, in main clauses:

God save the Queen! God Bless America.

If you want to throw your life away, so be it. It’s your life, not mine.

Heaven forbid! (about something unfortunate that might happen)

Bless you for coming, all of you.

These idioms tend to be rather <elevated or archaic>. In general, this formulaic subjunctive is an infrequent construction in present-day English.

Degrees of likelihood

  283   Instead of thinking of truth and falsehood in black-and-white terms, we can think in terms of a scale of likelihood. The extremes of the scale are impossibility and certainty (or logical necessity). Other intermediate concepts to be considered are possibility, probability, improbability, etc. These notions are expressed in various ways:

•  most importantly, by modal auxiliaries (can, may, must, etc., see 501):

I may be wrong.

Somebody’s car must have been leaking oil.

•  more <formally>, by a sentence with introductory it and a that-clause:

It’s possible that you’re right. (see 542)

•  by an adverbial such as probably, perhaps, necessarily (see 461–3):

Perhaps there was some mistake.

We show these various constructions in 284–92. We will give special attention to the use of auxiliaries in negative sentences, in questions, in reference to past time, and in hypothetical clauses.

Auxiliaries such as can, may, and must can refer to the future as well as to the present:

You may feel better tomorrow. (= ‘It’s possible that you will feel better’)

Possibility

Can, may, could, might

  284   •  Possibility of the fact (factual)

The railways may be improved.

[1]

It is possible that the railways will be improved.

[2]

Perhaps/possibly/maybe the railways will be improved.

[3]

•  Possibility of the idea (theoretical)

The railways can be improved.

[4]

It is possible for the railways to be improved.

[5]

Theoretical possibility (can) is ‘weaker’ than factual possibility (may). Sentence [4], for example, says merely that in theory the railways are ‘improvable’, i.e. that they are not perfect. Sentence [1], on the other hand, could suggest that there are definite plans for improvement.

Note

In general or habitual statements of possibility, can has roughly the same meaning as sometimes: A good leather bag can last (= ‘sometimes lasts’) a lifetime; She’s very helpful, but she can be short-tempered; Lightning can be dangerous.

285 •  Negation: For impossibility, use cannot or can’t (but not may not):

He can’t be working at this time! (‘It is impossible that he is working …’)

He may not be working, on the other hand, means ‘It is possible that he is not working’.

•  Questions: Use can (not may): Can he be working? (= ‘Is it possible that he is working?’)

•  Past time: For something which was possible in the past, use could:

In those days, you could be sentenced to death for a small crime.

For the (present) possibility of a past happening, use may + the perfect:

Krasnikov may have made an important discovery. (‘It is possible that he (has) made a …’)

•  Hypothetical: For hypothetical possibility, use could or might:

If someone were to come to the wrong conclusion, the whole plan could/might be ruined.

Tentative possibility (could, might)

  286   Could and might in their hypothetical sense often express <tentative> possibility, i.e. they refer to something which is possible, but unlikely:

He could/might have been telling lies. (‘It is just possible that he was/has been telling lies.’)

I wonder if there could be a simpler solution to the problem.

Ability (can, be able to, be capable of, etc.)

  287   The notion of ‘ability’, also expressed by can, be able to, and be capable of, is closely related to ‘theoretical possibility’:

She can speak English fluently.

Will you be able to meet us in London tomorrow?

She is capable of keeping a secret when she wants to.

It’s nice to know how to swim.

•  Negation: Use cannot, can’t (or be unable to, or be incapable of):

I can’t speak a word of German, and I doubt if Count Zeppelin will be able to speak English.

I cannot explain what happened.

Maria was unable to speak and incapable of moving.

•  Questions:

Can you drive a car?

Do you know how to unlock this door?

•  Past time: Could sometimes means ‘knew how to’. It refers to a permanent or habitual ability:

Marcus knew that I could play the piano a little.

Was/were able to often combines the ideas of ‘ability’ and ‘achievement’:

By acting quickly, we were able to save him from drowning. (‘We could, and did save him.’)

•  Hypothetical:

I’m so hungry, I could eat two dinners!

Deane could no more play Falstaff than Britt could play Cleopatra.

Certainty or logical necessity (must, have to, etc.)

  288   Must + infinitive and have + to-infinitive (or have got to) can express certainty or logical necessity:

There must have been some misunderstanding.

You have to be joking!ALSO: You’ve got to be joking!

The bombing’s got to stop sometime.

It is (almost) certain that the hostages will be released.

Many people will certainly/necessarily/inevitably lose their jobs.

~ Many people are certain/sure/bound to lose their jobs.

Inevitably, some changes will take place.

The contrasting relation between possibility and certainty can be seen in:

She’s over ninety, so

her father must be dead.

~ her father can’t still be alive.

~ it is impossible that her father is still alive.

~ it is certain that her father is dead.

All four sentences have in effect the same meaning.

289 •  Questions:

Does there have to be a motive for the crime?

~ Is there necessarily a motive for the crime?

•  Negation:

Strikes don’t have to be caused by bad pay (they can also be caused by bad conditions, etc.).

Strikes are not necessarily caused by bad pay.

There’s no need to be upset. You don’t need to worry about it.

Note

The modal auxiliary need (484) is used <esp in BrE> in place of must in questions and negatives:

You needn’t wait for me. (‘It is unnecessary …’)

However, this use of need is not common, and need to + infinitive or have to + infinitive can be used instead: You don’t need/have to wait for me. Must is rare in questions. The following example is ironic:

Must we have slurping noises?

290 •  Past time: We have to distinguish a past certainty (had to) from a certainty about the past (usually expressed by must + the perfect):

Don’t worry. Someone had to lose the game. (‘It was necessary, by the rules of the game, for someone to lose.’)

John must have missed his train. (‘It appears certain that John missed his train.’)

•  Hypothetical: You can use have to in the past tense or with would:

If I had to choose, I’d prefer this job to any other.

You would have to be brilliant, to win a prize.

Prediction and predictability will, must)

  291   As already seen (see 288), must often expresses a feeling of certainty when we draw a conclusion from evidence. On hearing the phone ring, someone might say

That must be my daughter. (= ‘I know that she is due to phone at about this time, and I therefore conclude that she is phoning now’)

In a similar way, you can use will to express a ‘prediction’ about the present (just as you can use will to make a prediction about the future – see 141):

That will be my daughter.

There is little difference here between must and will:

They will have arrived by now. (ALSO: They will have arrived by tomorrow.)

They must have arrived by now. (BUT NOT: *They must have arrived by tomorrow.)

This sort of prediction with will often occurs with conditional sentences:

If you are full, you won’t need any pudding.

If you pour boiling water on ordinary glass it will probably crack.

Will can also be used in a habitual sense, to express the idea of ‘predictability’ or ‘characteristic behaviour’:

Accidents will happen. (a saying)

A lion will attack a human being only when it is hungry.

We have noted (see 130) the equivalent use of would to express habitual or characteristic (‘predictable’) behaviour in the past:

She would often go all day without eating.

Probability (should, ought to, etc.)

  292   The auxiliaries should and ought to (see 483) can express ‘probability’; they are weaker equivalents of must (= ‘certainty’). Compare:

images

Should is more frequent than ought to. Other ways of expressing probability are:

It is quite probable/likely that they didn’t receive the letter.

He is probably the best chess player in the country.

They have very likely lost the way home. (Here likely is an adverb.)

The concert is likely to finish late. (Here likely is an adjective.)

•  Negation: Improbability can be expressed by shouldn’t, oughtn’t to, or it is improbable/unlikely that:

images

~ It is unlikely that there will be any difficulties.

•  Questions (not common):

Is there likely to be any difficulty in getting tickets?

Note

Must and will (see 291), as well as adjectives like sure, are sometimes used in a weakened sense that one feels is nearer to ‘probability’ than to ‘certainty’. This is because people have a natural tendency to overstate their convictions:

You’ll be feeling hungry after all that work.

They must have spent years and years building this cathedral.

I’m sure that they can all be trusted.

Attitudes to truth

  293   We now consider the ways in which people may be committed or uncommitted to the truth or reality of something. The people concerned may be the speaker (‘I’) or another person, or a group of people. To express such attitudes, we often use:

•  a that-clause: I know that his answer will be ‘No’.

•  a wh-clause: I know what his answer will be.

•  Sometimes adverbials, e.g. obviously, without doubt:

Without doubt, she is one of the best teachers in the school.

•  Other constructions, such as the type of parenthetical clauses we call comment clauses (see 499), e.g. They can all be trusted, I hope.

Note

In <impersonal> style, people prefer to use the methods of expressing certainty, probability, etc. discussed in 288–92, rather than those which involve a 1st person pronoun. Thus It is certain … and It is unlikely … can be impersonal alternatives to I am certain … or I doubt

Certainty

  294        Polly knew (that) she was being watched.

You know what I’m like: I hate a big fuss.

I’m certain/sure (that) the party will be a success.

images

It is obvious/clear/plain (to us all) that he has suffered a great deal.

~ He has clearly/obviously/plainly suffered a great deal.

We don’t doubt that he is honest.

~ We have no doubt of his honesty.

Doubtless it doesn’t always rain at Barnard Castle: that’s just the way it seems.

Doubt or uncertainty

  295   Doubt is the opposite of certainty:

I am not certain/sure/convinced that he deserves promotion.

~ I am not certain/sure whether he deserves promotion.

They were uncertain/unsure (of) who was to blame.

I doubt if many people will come to the meeting.

~ I don’t think many people will come to the meeting (see 587).

There were some doubts about your pricing policy.

We have doubts about the risks everyone is taking.

They were uncertain of/about the best course to take.

Belief, opinion, and similar meanings

296 •    Belief, opinion

I believe (that) the lecture was well attended.

~ The lecture was well attended, I believe.

She thinks (that) she can dictate to everybody.

It was everybody’s opinion that the conference was a success.

It’s my belief that global warning will lead to widespread shifts of population.

In my opinion, he was driving the car too fast.

You may consider yourselves lucky. The hurricane could have wrecked your house. (On the use of an object complement here, see 508, 733.)

She was thought/believed/considered to be the richest woman in Europe.

Tag questions (see 684), especially with a falling tone, can be used to express an opinion:

He was driving too fàst, wàsn’t he?

Note

There is a slight difference between ‘opinion’ and ‘belief: an opinion is usually something that someone arrives at on the basis of observation and judgement:

It’s my belief that he drinks too much. (‘I don’t know how much he drinks, but …’)

It’s my opinion that he drinks too much. (‘I know how much he drinks, and in my judgement, it’s too much.’)

•  Assumption

We assume/suppose that you have received the package.

All the passengers, I presume, have been warned about the delay.

~ All the passengers have presumably been warned about the delay.

I guess I’m a kid at heart. <informal, AmE>

Will in the sense of ‘present prediction’ (see 291) can be used here:

I assume you will all have heard the news.

•  Appearance

It seems/appears (to me) that no one noticed his escape.

~ No one seems/appears to have noticed his escape.

~ Apparently, no one noticed his escape.

It looks as if he’s ill. <rather informal> (Here looks may refer to visual appearance only.)

Note

Like can replace as if in the last example in <informal AmE>. In <BrE> this use of like as a conjunction is less acceptable.

  297   In that-clauses of the types shown in 296 above, transferred negation (see 587) is common. Thus instead of I think he hasn’t arrived, we prefer to say I don’t think he has arrived.

Notice that in shortened reply statements of these three categories, the clause which is the object of belief, etc. can usually be replaced by so (see 386):

images

(Here so replaces ‘(that) the race has been postponed’.)

SECTION C

Mood, emotion and attitude

  298   In Section B, we looked at the English language as a means of giving and receiving information. But language is more than this: it is communication between people. It often expresses the emotions and attitudes of the speaker, and the speaker often uses it to influence the attitudes and behaviour of the hearer. These are the aspects of English we consider in this section.

Emotive emphasis in speech

Interjections

  299   In this part of Section C, we shall be dealing mainly with <familiar> forms of English. Interjections are words whose main or only function is to express emotion. Common English interjections are:

Oh/oimages/ (surprise):

Oh, what a beautiful present.

Ah/images/ (satisfaction, recognition, etc.):

Ah, that’s just what I wanted.

Ahaimagesimages/ (jubilant satisfaction, recognition):

Aha, these books are exactly what I was looking for.

Wow/waimages/ (great surprise):

Wow, what a fantastic goal!

Yippee/images/ (excitement, delight):

Yippee, this is fun!

Ouch /aimagestʃ/: (pain)

Ouch, my foot!

Ow/aimages/ (pain):

Ow, that hurt!

Ugh/∧x/ (disgust):

Ugh, what a mess.

Ooh/images/ (pleasure, pain):

Ooh, this cream cake’s delicious.

Other ways of giving emotion emphasis

  300    •  Exclamations (see 528)

What a wonderful time we’ve had!

How good of you to come! <rather formal>

Exclamations are often shortened to a noun phrase or an adjectival phrase: What a girl! (‘What a girl she is!’); How funny! (‘How funny it is!’).

•  Emphatic so and such (see 528)

The whole place was ‘such a mèss!

I’m ‘so afraid they’ll get lòst.

I didn’t know he was ‘such a nice màn.

These have an emotive emphasis similar to that of exclamations, but their tone can be rather ‘gushy’. The words so and such are stressed, and for extra emphasis, may receive nuclear stress.

•  Repetition (which also denotes degree = extremely)

This house is ′far, ′far too expensive.

I agree with every word you’ve said – ′every ′single ′word.

I think that the lecturers are ′very ′very boring.

You ′bad, ′bad boy! (spoken to a naughty child)

Note the use of stress (') to emphasize the repetition.

•  Stress on the operator (see 609–12)

That Image be nice!

What áre you ing?

We hàve enjoyed ourselves!

The operator often has nuclear stress. Do can be used as a dummy auxiliary to express emphasis (see 611–12):

You look pretty.

You 'did give me a frǐght.

There is a similar use of do to give persuasive emphasis to a command:

'Do be quìet! <impolite>

come éarly.

•  Nuclear stress on other words

I wìsh you’d sée to it.

I’m tèrribly sórry!

Intensifying adverbs and modifiers

  301   As we noted in 217–18, many degree adverbs and other degree expressions intensify the meaning of the word they modify:

Well, that’s very nice indeed.

We are utterly powerless.

It’s this sort of thing that makes me look an absolute fool.

In <familiar> speech, some adjectives and adverbs (such as terrific, tremendous, awfully, terribly) have little meaning apart from their emotive force. Thus terrific, great, grand, fantastic are simply emphatic equivalents of good or nice: The weather was terrific; It was a great show; etc. Notice that awfully and terribly can be used in a ‘good’ sense, as well as in a ‘bad’ sense:

She’s terribly kind to us.

In addition to degree adverbs, certain adverbs like really and definitely have an emphatic effect:

We really have enjoyed ourselves.

He definitely impressed us.

It was truly a memorable occasion.

She literally collapsed with laughter. <familiar>

Emphasis

  302   You can intensify the emotive force of a wh-question by adding ever, on earth, etc. to the wh-word:

How ever did they escape? (‘I just can’t imagine’)

Why on earth didn’t you tell me? (‘How silly of you!’)

What the hell does he think he’s doing? (‘The idiot!’)

These forms are typical of <informal or familiar speech>. (What the hell, why the hell, etc. are mildly taboo expressions.) In <writing>, ever is sometimes spelled as part of the wh-word: whoever, wherever, etc., but so spelled, these words have other uses apart from intensifying (see 214, 592). Why ever is always spelled as two words.

Emphatic negation

  303    •  You can intensify a negative sentence by adding at all either directly after the negative word, or in a later position in the sentence.

The doctors found nothing at all the matter with him.

She didn’t speak to us at all.

Other negative intensifiers are a bit <informal> and by any means (both adverbials of degree); and whatever (modifier after a negative noun phrase):

They weren’t a bit apologetic.

You have no excuse whatever.

Further examples of negative intensifiers are:

I didn’t sleep a wink. <informal> (used only with the verb sleep)

He didn’t give me a thing. <informal> (= ‘anything at all’)

•  A negative noun phrase beginning not a can be used for emphasis:

We arrived not a moment too soon. (= We didn’t arrive one moment too soon.)

•  Fronted negation

The negative element can be placed at the beginning of the clause. This rather <rhetorical> form of negative emphasis is often combined with the forms already mentioned:

Not a penny of the money did he spend.

Never have I seen such a crowd of people. <rather formal>

As the examples show, the operator (did, have, etc.) is placed before the subject (unless the negative element is itself the subject: Not a single word passed her lips) (see 417).

Exclamatory and rhetorical questions

  304   An exclamatory question is a yes-no question spoken with an emphatic falling tone, instead of the usual rising tone. The most common type has a negative form:

Hasn’t she gròwn! (‘She’s grown very very much!’)

[1]

Wasn’t it a marvellous còncert!

[2]

[A] The picture’s faded.   [B] Yes, isn’t it a Image.

[3]

Here the speaker vigorously invites the hearer’s agreement; the effect of [2] is similar to:

It was a marvellous còncert, wàsn’t it? (see 245)

Another type of exclamatory question is positive in form, with stress on the operator and subject:

'Am 'I hùngry! (‘I’m very very hungry.’)

'Did 'he look annòyed! (‘He certainly looked very annoyed.’)

'Has 'she gròwn! (‘She’s grown such a lot!’)

  305   A rhetorical question is more like a forceful statement than an exclamation.

•  Positive

A positive rhetorical question is like a strong negative statement:

Is this a reason for saving nó one? (‘Surely that is not a reason …’)

•  Negative

A negative rhetorical question is like a strong positive statement:

Didn’t I tèll you he would forgét? (‘You know I told you …’)

There are also rhetorical wh-questions:

What dìfference does it make? (‘It makes no difference.’)

How many employees would refuse a rise in pày? (‘Very few or none.’)

As the name suggests, rhetorical questions are often rather <rhetorical> in tone. They challenge the hearer to deny what appears obvious.

Describing emotions

  306   We come now to the description or reporting of emotive behaviour. An emotive reaction to something can be expressed by the preposition at:

I was alarmed at his behaviour.

[1]

An audience will always laugh at a good joke.

[2]

She was very surprised at your resignation from the club.

[3]

In <BrE>, with is often used instead of at when what causes the reaction is a person or object rather than an event:

I was furious with him for missing that penalty.

Is she pleased with her present?

Other prepositions used are about and of: worried about, annoyed about, resentful of, etc. (see 239).

As a former champion, he was annoyed about his own failures, and resentful of the successes of others.

What causes the emotion is often expressed by a to-infinitive clause or a that-clause (with or without should, see 280), and in these cases the preposition is omitted (see 655):

They were alarmed to find the house empty.

I’m sorry to have kept you waiting.

He was delighted to see them so happy.

We’re anxious that everything should go smoothly.

  307   The cause of emotion may also be expressed by the subject (or, in the passive, by by + the agent). Compare [3] in 306 above with:

Your resignation from the club surprised her very much.

~ She was very surprised by your resignation from the club.

Other constructions for describing emotions do not specify the person affected, and are therefore more <impersonal>:

The accommodation was satisfactory/delightful, etc.

[4]

The news from the front is very disturbing.

[5]

It’s amazing that so many passengers were unhurt. (see 438, 542)

[6]

It is a pity that the government should ever have been led to abandon its principles.

[7]

It’s a pity to leave the party before the fun starts.

[8]

In most of these cases, the person affected is likely to be ‘me’ (the speaker). The person affected can sometimes be made clear by a phrase introduced by to or for: satisfactory for most people, disturbing to me, etc. Thus [6] can be expanded:

To me, it’s amazing that so many passengers were unhurt.

Sentence adverbials expressing emotion

  308   Some sentence adverbials (including comment clauses, see 499) can express an emotional reaction or judgement:

To my regret, he did not accept our offer. (i.e. ‘I regretted that he did not accept the offer.’)

Surprisingly, no one has objected to the plan. (i.e. ‘It is surprising that …’)

She is wisely staying at home today. (i.e. ‘She is wise to stay …’)

The children were rather noisy, I’m afraid. (i.e. ‘I’m afraid the children were …’)

Other sentence adverbs similar to surprisingly and wisely are amazingly, strangely, regrettably, fortunately, luckily, happily, hopefully, preferably, foolishly, sensibly. For example:

Amazingly, the dog survived.

Fortunately we were outside the building when the fire started.

Hopefully all my problems are now behind me.

Liking and disliking

  309   Verbs such as like, love, hate, and prefer can be followed either by a noun phrase object [9], by a to-infinitive clause [10] or by an -ing clause [11] (see 721–3):

images

Some English speakers see a slight difference between last two sentences: the infinitive clause in [10] expresses an ‘idea’ (‘She likes/loves/hates the idea of it’), while the –ing clause in [11] expresses a ‘fact’ (‘She likes/loves/ hates it when she does it’) (see 274). Thus in some contexts (but not in [10]), the infinitive clause may have neutral meaning (see 279):

images

When the main verb is hypothetical, usually only the infinitive clause can be used:

[A] Would you like to have dinner now?

[B] No, I’d prefer to eat later.

Note

Enjoy, dislike, and loathe take only -ing clauses: He enjoys/dislikes/loathes cleaning the car.

Preference

  310   Prefer means ‘like more’ or ‘like better’. The rejected alternative is expressed by a to-phrase, or by a clause introduced by rather than, which may be followed by an infinitive (with or without to) or by an -ing participle:

Most people prefer trains to buses.

They prefer renting a car to having one of their own.

~ They prefer to rent a car rather than to have one of their own.

~  Rather than buy a car of their own, they prefer to rent one.

She has always preferred making her own clothes,

images

Would prefer + to-infinitive (hypothetical preference) can be replaced by would rather + bare infinitive, which may be followed by a than-construction (see 715):

I’d prefer to stay in a house rather than in a hotel.

~ I’d rather stay in a house than in a hotel.

Some other emotions

  311   Here are some of the ways of expressing other emotions. Many of them have already been discussed and exemplified. Notice that adverbs of degree (see 217–26) can be used to indicate the ‘strength’ of the emotion. Many of the sentences are <informal and familiar>.

Hope

  312   images

I am hoping that they get that letter tomorrow. <tentative> (see 139)

I was hoping we would get a bit more time. <more tentative> (see 121, 139)

I hope to see you soon.

Hopefully, next spring will bring an improvement in the economic situation.

Anticipation of pleasure

  313   I am looking forward to receiving your reply.

I know we’ll enjoy meeting you again.

Disappointment or regret

  314   I’m (rather/very) disappointed that the match has been cancelled.

It is (somewhat) disappointing that over half the tickets are unsold.

It’s a (great) shame/pity that this is the last party.

I’m (very) sorry to hear that you have to leave.

I had hoped that she would change her mind. (unfulfilled hope) (see 275)

I wish (that) someone had let me know. (unfulfilled wish) (see 321–2)

If only I had known! (see 322)

Unfortunately we’re having trouble with the builder.

Approval

  315   images

It wasn’t a bad mòvie, wàs it? <familiar> (mild) (see 684)

I (quite) like the new boss.

images

What a great/terrific/marvellous/ … movie! (enthusiastic) (528)

Disapproval

  316   I don’t like the way she dresses (very much).

I don’t (much) care for iced tea, actually.

images

I thought the novel was pòor/drèadful/appàlling, didn’t yóu.

It would have been better, I think, if you hadn’t mentioned it.

You shouldn’t have bought such an expensive present. (see 328)

You could have been more careful.

I don’t think you should have told the children.

I had hoped you would have done more than this.

Disapproval can often be expressed more indirectly by means of a question:

Did you have/need to work so late?

Why did you do a thing like that?

Was it really necessary to be so rude to the waiter?

Don’t you think it would have been better if you had told me in advance?

Surprise

  317   It’s (rather) surprising/amazing/astonishing that so many people come to these meetings.

I am/was (very) surprised that so many turned up.

What a surprise!        How amazing!

How strange/odd/astonishing/amazing that you both went to the same school!

Wasn’t it extraordinary that the child was totally unhurt? (see 304)

Surprisingly/strangely/incredibly, James slept soundly through the whole affair.

Concern, worry

  318   I am (a bit) concerned/worried that our money will be used unnecessarily.

I am (rather) worried/concerned about what will happen to the union.

It’s (very) disturbing/worrying that no one noticed the break-in.

I find his behaviour very disturbing/worrying.

Her health gives (some) cause for anxiety/concern. <formal, impersonal>

Volition

  319   We distinguish four types of volition: willingness, wish, intention, insistence. These are listed in order of increasing ‘strength’.

Willingness

  320   Willingness can be expressed by the auxiliary will (or ’ll <informal>):

[A]  Will you lend me those scissors for a minute or two?

[B]  OK, I will, but only if you promise to return them.

The porter will help if you ask him.

Here the future meaning of will is mixed with that of volition (see 129). For past or hypothetical willingness, use would:

Past time:

We tried to warn them about the dangers, but no one would listen.

Hypothetical:

My boss is so greedy, he would do anything for money.

Won’t and wouldn’t express the negative of willingness, i.e. refusal:

My father’s rich, but he won’t give me any money. (= ‘He refuses/ declines to give any money.’)

The guards just wouldn’t take any notice. They wouldn’t listen to me. (= ‘They refused …’)

Wish

  321   For neutral volition, want is a less <formal> verb than wish:

I want (you) to read this newspaper report.

Do you want me to sign this letter?

The manager wishes (me) to thank you for your cooperation. <rather formal>

For a hypothetical circumstance, use only wish:

I wish you would listen to me! (‘… but you won’t’)

  322   The exclamatory construction If only … can also be used for hypothetical meaning:

If only I could remember his name!

~ I 'do wish I could remember his name!

When expressing your own wishes, or inviting the wishes of others, you can make the wish more <tentative> and <tactful> by using would like, would prefer, or would rather (see 309–10):

Would you like me to open these letters?

I would prefer to stay in a less expensive hotel.

Another way to consult someone’s wishes is to use a question with shall <mainly BrE>, or more <tentatively>, with should:

Shall I make you a cup of coffee? (‘Do you want me to … ?’)

What shall we do this evening?

Shall we cancel the order if it’s not needed?

Should we tell him that he’s not wanted?

Note

1st and 3rd person commands with let (see 498) also express a kind of wish:

Let’s listen to some music (, shall we?)

Let everyone do what they can.

Intention

  323   The verbs intend, mean, plan and aim (+ infinitive clause) express intention:

He intends/plans/aims to arrest them as they leave the building.

[1]

That remark was meant/intended to hurt her.

[2]

Intention can also be expressed by be going to (see 142) or, in the 1st person, by will/shall (see 141) or the contraction ’ll:

Are you going to catch the last train?

We won’t stay longer than two hours.

These forms also have an element of prediction, and so are more definite about the fulfilment of the intention than [1] and [2]. (On clauses and phrases of purpose, or ‘intended result’, see 203.)

Insistence

  324   He insists on doing everything himself.

We are determined to overcome the problem.

Insistence is occasionally expressed by will/shall with strong stress:

He 'will try to mend it himsèlf. (‘He insists on trying …’)

I wòn’t give in! (‘I am determined not to give in.’)

Permission and obligation

Permission: can, may, etc.

  325   Can we sit down in here? Yes, you can.

May I speak to you for a minute? <more formal, polite>

Are we allowed to use the swimming pool?

Is it all right if we smoke in here? <informal>

They have allowed/permitted her to take the examination late. (permit is <more formal> than allow)

They let him do what he wants.

Nowadays may is rarely used for permission: can is used instead.

•  Past: could

The detainees could leave the camp only by permission of the governor. (‘… were allowed to …’)

•  Hypothetical

If you were a student, you could travel at half-price. (‘… would be allowed to …’)

You can also use hypothetical could (and rarely might) in <tactful> requests for permission:

Could we ask you what your opinion is?

I wonder if I could borrow your pen?

Another construction for asking and giving permission involves the verb mind:

images

images

Again, the hypothetical form is more <tactful>.

Obligation or compulsion: must, have to, etc.

  326   images

You have to sign your name here (otherwise the document isn’t valid).

[2]

I’ve got to finish this essay by tomorrow. <informal>

[3]

The university requires all students to submit their work by a date. <formal, written>

[4]

Must and have (got) to + infinitive (see 288, 483) both express obligation, but some English speakers feel a difference between them. For such speakers, must involves the speaker’s authority (see [1]), while have (got) to may involve some other authority than the speaker – e.g. official regulations (see [2]). With a first person subject, must expresses my authority over myself, e.g. my sense of duty:

I must phone my parents tonight. (‘They’ll be worrying about me.’)

[5]

We must invite the Stewarts to dinner. (‘It’s months since we last saw them.’)

•  Past: had to

Beckham had to withdraw from the match because of injury. (‘was obliged to …’)

•  Hypothetical:

If you went abroad, you would have to earn your own living. (‘… would be obliged to …’)

  327    •  Questions: have got to, have to, need to, etc.

Why have you got to work so hard?

Do we have to fill out all these forms?

Does anyone need to leave early?

•  Negation:

We don’t have to pay for the digital equipment – it comes for nothing.

You don’t need to pay that fine.

There’s no need to buy the tickets yet.

Note

[a]

Must sometimes occurs in questions expecting a negative answer:

Must you leave already? (‘Surely you don’t have to!’)

[b]

Especially in <BrE>, need as an operator can be used instead of must in questions and negatives. However, this is now <rare>:

Need you work so hard?; We needn’t hurry.

Other ways of expressing obligation: should, ought to, etc.

  328    •  Should and ought to (see 292) express an obligation which may not be fulfilled. Compare [4] and [5] in 326 above with:

All students should submit their work by a given date (‘… but some of them don’t!’).

I ought to phone my parents tonight (‘but I probably won’t have time’).

•  Need to + infinitive (where need is a main verb, not an auxiliary, see 484) indicates ‘internal obligation’ caused by the state of the person referred to:

He needs to practise more if he is to improve his game of golf.

I really need to clear this place up.

We can also use need with a direct object:

This country needs a strong prime minister.

•  Had better (or ’d better) <informal> + infinitive (without to) means that the speaker strongly recommends or advises an action:

images

He’d better not make another mistake.

I suppose I’d better lock the door.

•  Shall in the sense of ‘obligation’ is normally limited to official regulations and other <formal> documents:

The Society’s nominating committee shall nominate one person for the office of President. <very formal>

Prohibition (and negative advice)

  329   Prohibition is the negation of permission (‘he/she is not allowed to do something’). Can and may (= ‘permission’) and must (= ‘obligation’) can all have the meaning of ‘prohibition’ with a negative:

[A]  Can the children play here?

[B]  No, I’m afraid they can’t (‘they’re not allowed to’) – it’s against the rules.

Children may not use the swimming pool (‘They’re not allowed to …’) unless they are accompanied by an adult. <formal, rather rare>

You must not tell anyone about this letter: it’s confidential. (‘You’re obliged not to …’)

A weakened prohibition (more like negative advice) can be expressed by shouldn’t, oughtn’t to <esp BrE>, and had better not:

She shouldn’t be so impatient.

You oughtn’t to waste all that money on smoking.

We’d better not wake the children up.

Note

Recently must in its ‘obligation’ sense has become less common, especially in <AmE>, perhaps because it tends to imply that the speaker is claiming authority over the addressee. Have to, need to, or should can be used instead.

Influencing people

Commands

  330   •  With the aim of getting someone to do something, a direct command can be used: Shut the door. Follow me. Just look at this mess. etc. (see 497). A negative command has the effect of forbidding an action: Don’t be a fool. Don’t worry about me. However, an imperative is often less ‘forbidding’ than it seems. It can have a friendly effect, if the action is in the hearer’s interest: Help yourself. Or it can be used jokingly: Don’t overdo it!

•  In addition, with a 2nd person subject, the verb forms expressing obligation and prohibition (see 326, 329) can have almost the same effect as a command: You must be careful; You must not smoke here.

•  The construction be to + infinitive can convey a command given either by the speaker, or (more usually) by some official authority:

He is to return to Germany tomorrow. (‘He has been given orders to return to Germany.’)

You are to stay here until I return. (‘These are my instructions to you.’)

Note

[a]

Some verbless sentences have the effect of brusque commands: Out with it! This way! Here! (= ‘Bring/put it here’). Another type is especially used in addressing children and pets: Off you go! Down you get! Up you come! <familiar>

[b]

Will in its future sense can sometimes be used (e.g. in military contexts) with the force of a severe command:

Officers will report for duty at 0600 (‘six hundred’) hours.

You will do exactly as I say.

Commands with grammatical subjects, etc.

  331   You can specify the people who have to perform the action by putting a 2nd or 3rd person subject in front of the imperative verb (see 497), or else by using a vocative:

‘You take Image tray, and ‘you take thàt one. (pointing to the people concerned; note that you is stressed)

Jack and Susan stand over thère.

Somebody open this dòor, pléase.

Come hère, Míchael.

Elsewhere, a command with you has a tone of impatience:

'You mind your own bùsiness!

Another form of impatient command begins with will:

'Will you be Image!

Although this has the grammatical form of a question, its falling intonation gives it the force of a command. In many circumstances, commands are <impolite>, and therefore we shall consider in 332–5 various ways of toning down the effect of a command.

Note

However, it is <not impolite> to use a command when you are telling someone to do something for his or her own good:

Have another chocolate.

Make yourself at home.

Just leave everything to me.

Do come in.

These are in effect offers or invitations rather than commands.

Weakened commands

  332   One way to tone down or weaken the imperative force of a command is to use a rising or fall-rise tone, instead of the usual falling tone:

Be cǎreful.

Don’t forget your wállet.

Another way is to add please, or the tag question won’t you:

Images

However, if you are asking a favour, none of these alternatives is <polite>.

Note

Two other tags, why don’t you and will you (after a negative command), can tone down a command:

Images

But after a positive command, will you has rising intonation, and usually expresses impatience (see 331).

Sit dòwn, wíll you.

Requests

  333   It is often more <tactful> to use a request rather than a command: i.e. to ask your hearer whether he or she is willing or able to do something. The auxiliaries will/would (= willingness) and can/could (= ability) are very often used:

[A]

Will you make sure the water’s hót?

[B]

Yès, okáy. <familiar>

[A]

Would you please tell me your phóne number?

[B]

Yès, cèrtainly, it’s …

[A]

Can anyone tell us what the tíme is?

[B]

Yèah, half past four.

[A]

Could you lend me a pén.

[B]

Okáy. <familiar> Hére it ìs.

(These examples also show some typical replies.) Would and could are more <tactful> than will and can. You can also use a negative question, which expects a positive answer (see 246), and is to that extent <less tentative> and more persuasive:

Won’t you come in and sit dówn?

Couldn’t you possibly come anóther day?

Other <polite> forms of request

  334   There are many other indirect ways of making a <polite> request; e.g. you can make a statement about your own wishes. The following are listed roughly in order of least to most <polite>:

I wouldn’t mind a drìnk, if you háve one.

Would you mind starting over agáin?

I wonder if you could put me on your màiling list, please.

Would you be good/kind enough to let me knów? <more formal>

I would be (extremely) grateful if you would lephone me this afternòon.

I wonder if you’d mind writing a ference for me.

These sentences are typical of <polite, spoken> English. In formal letters, useful formulae are:

I would be very grateful if you would …

I would appreciate it if you could …

Would you kindly …

Advice and suggestions

  335   As ways of influencing other people, advice and suggestions are milder than commands. Strictly, these leave the decision about what to do in the hands of the hearer. But in practice, as the examples show, they are often <tactful> ways of giving commands or instructions.

•  Advice

You should stay in bed until you start to recover.

You ought to keep your money in a bank account.

There’s a new book you ought to read.

You’d better take your medicine.

I’d advise you to see a doctor.

If I were you, I’d wear proper running shoes.

•  Suggestions

I suggest they take the night train.

You can read these two chapters before tomorrow (if you like).

You could lose six to eight pounds, Missy.

You might have a look at this book.

Why don’t you call on me tomorrow?

Perhaps you could call again tomorrow?

Could and might indicate more <tentative> suggestions.

•  Suggestions involving the speaker

I suggest we go to bed early, and make an early start tomorrow.

Shall we listen to some music?

Let’s not waste time.

Why don’t we have a party?

How about a game of cards?

What about having a drink?

Reported commands, requests, etc.

  336   Commands, like statements and questions (see 264–8), can be reported either in direct speech or in indirect speech:

Direct speech:

‘Put on your space-suits,’ he said.

Indirect speech:

He told/ordered/instructed them to put on their space-suits.

In indirect speech, put the command in the form of a to-infinitive clause. The hearer can be identified by an indirect object (see 608, 730) – them in the above examples. Note the passive construction:

They were told/ordered/instructed to put on their space-suits.

The same construction can be used for advice, requests, permission, obligation, persuasion, invitations, etc.:

She advised me to telephone for a doctor.

[1]

Liam asked/begged me to help him with his homework

[2]

Jane allowed Patrick to borrow her car.

[3]

They compelled him to answer their questions.

[4]

Mary has persuaded me to resign.

[5]

We were invited to attend the performance.

[6]

The priest recommended him to try for the job.

[7]

Notice also direct object constructions:

The doctor advised a rest.

He begged our forgiveness.

I (can) recommend the local cuisine.

  337   Not all verbs for ‘influencing people’ take an infinitive. Suggest takes a that-clause (often with putative should or with the subjunctive, see 280–2):

He suggested that they (should) play cards.

This construction may also follow other verbs, such as recommend:

The doctor recommends that you (should) take plenty of rest.

Requests, acts of permission, etc. can also be put in the form of indirect statements and questions. Thus instead of [2] and [3] (in 336) you could say:

He asked me if I would help him with his homework.

[2a]

(Compare DIRECT SPEECH: ‘Will you help me with my homework?’)

Jane said Patrick could borrow her car.

[3a]

(Compare DIRECT SPEECH:You can borrow my car.’)

The rules for changing into the past tense, etc. (see 256–7) for indirect statements and questions apply also to indirect commands, requests, etc. – except that there is no tense-change in infinitive clauses. After a past-tense reporting verb, will, shall, can, may and have to change to their past tense forms would, should, could, might, and had to (see [2a], [3a]) but must, ought to, should, and had better do not change:

‘You must be careful.’

I told them they must be careful.

‘You should stay in bed.’

I told him he should stay in bed.

Reported prohibitions, refusals, etc.

  338   The verbs forbid <formal>, prohibit <formal>, dissuade, refuse, decline and deny already contain a negative meaning, so the clauses which follow them are normally positive:

images

His wife dissuaded him from leaving the country. (‘She persuaded him not to …’)

The minister refused /declined to comment on the press report.

He denied that any promises had been broken.

Warnings, promises and threats

  339   Finally, we turn to three types of utterance involving future time:

•  Warnings

Mind (your head)!

Look out!

Be careful (of your clothes).

I warn you it’s going to be foggy.

If you’re not careful, that pan will catch fire.

Short warnings are often spoken with a fall-rise intonation: Mǐnd!

•  Promises

I’ll let you know tomorrow.

I (can) promise (you) it won’t hurt.

Can I borrow your road atlas? I promise to bring it back.

You won’t lose money, I promise (you).

Assuming that the order reaches our office by tomorrow, our firm will undertake to supply the goods by the weekend. <formal, written>

•  Threats

I’ll report you if you do that again.

Don’t you dàre talk to me like that.

You dàre come near me with that silly spray!

Touch me, and I’ll tell your mother. (see 366)

Stop eating those sweets, or I’ll take them away. (see 367)

Warnings, promises and threats in reported speech

  340    •  Reported warnings

Jim Moore warned parents to keep their children away from the area.

They warned us of/about the strike.

We were warned that the journey might be dangerous.

•  Reported promises

He promised/undertook to let me know.

Olly has promised Billy to take him fishing next Sunday.

He promised that he wouldn’t bet on horses.

They promised him that he would not lose his job.

Her boss <familiar> has promised her a rise.

She has been promised a rise.

•  Threats

She threatened to report me to the police.

The manager has threatened that they will lose their jobs.

He has threatened them with dismissal.

Friendly communications

  341   Let us now look at some of the simple acts of communication whereby people establish and maintain friendly relations with one another. Common intonations are given where they are important (see 33–42).

Beginning and ending conversation

  342   •  Greetings

Images <informal, esp. AmE>

Hel. <informal, esp. BrE>

Good mórning. Good afternóon.

Good èvening. <formal>

It is common to omit Good: e.g. Morning. It is also common to use a, rising tone, e.g.:

(Good) morning.

Hélló (with a rising tone) is also used in answering the phone.

•  Farewells (temporary)

Goodbýe.

(Bye)-býe. <familiar>

Sèe you. <familiar>

See you at six o’clóck. <familiar>

See you ter. <familiar>

See you tomórrow. <familiar>

Cheer. <familiar BrE>

Chèers. <very familiar, BrE>

Images. (final word before parting for the night or before going to bed)

•  Farewells (more permanent):

Goodbýe.

Other remarks may be added for politeness:

It’s been nice knòwing you.

(I hope you) have a good jǒurney.

•  Introductions (when we meet for the first time)

May I introduce (you to) Miss Brówn? <formal>

This is (a friend of mine,) Gordon McKèag.

I don’t think you’ve met our nèighbour, Mr Quìrk.

•  Greetings on introduction

How do you ? <formal>

How àre you?

Glad to mèet you.

Helló. <informal>

Images <familiar, especially AmE>

‘Small talk’

  343   After a greeting, a conversation may continue with a polite inquiry about health, etc:

How are yòu?

How are you getting òn? <familiar>

How’s thìngs? <very familiar>

How are you ing? <familiar, esp. AmE>

Common replies to such questions are:

(I’m) Images. How are yòu?

Very wèll, thánk you. And yóu?

If someone is liable to poor health, you might begin: How are you fèeling today/these days? OR I hope you’re wěll.

Especially in Britain, opening remarks about the weather are common:

[A] (It’s a) lovely dày, ìsn’t it? (see 245)

 [B] Yès, isn’t it bèautiful. (see 304)

[A] What miserable wèather! (see 528)

 [B] Drèadful!

Beginning and ending letters

  344    •  Example of a <formal> official letter

image

•  Example of a <less formal> letter

image

•  Example of an <informal> letter between acquaintances

image

More intimate letters may begin and end with endearments:

My dear George,/ Dearest George, … Love from Janet, etc.

Thanks, apologies, regrets

  345    •  Thanks

Thànk you (very much).

Thanks very mùch.

(Many) thànks.

. <BrE slang>

•  Responses to thanks

Not at àll.

You’re wèlcome.

Thàt’s all Images

Note that in English such responses are not so common (esp. in <BrE>) as in some other languages. Often the ‘giver’ makes no reply. In shops, etc. the customer will say Thank you for the article bought, and the shopkeeper will often likewise say Thank you in return, on receiving the money.

•  Apologies

(I’m) sǒrry.

(I bèg your) párdon.

Excǔse me.

Excuse me can be a proper apology in <AmE>, but in <BrE> is limited to mild apologies for routine ‘impolite’ behaviour; e.g. for interrupting, for sneezing, for pushing in front of somebody, for starting up a conversation with a stranger. One could say I beg your pardon for mishaps such as treading on someone’s toe. More lengthy apologies are:

images

Will you forgive/excuse me if I have to leave éarly?

I hope you will forgive/excuse me if I have to leave ěarly.

•  Responses to apologies

Thàt’s all Images

Please don’t wórry.

•  Regrets

I’m sorry I couldn’t come in to congratulate you. <informal>

I regret that we were unable to provide the assistance you required. <formal, written>

Good wishes, congratulations, condolences

  346   These are normally spoken with a falling tone.

•  Good wishes

Good luck!

Best wishes for your holiday vacation.

Have a nice day. <esp. AmE>

Have a good time at the theatre.

I wish you every success in your new career. <more formal>

•  Good wishes sent to a third person

Please give my best wishes to Sally.

Please remember me to your father.

Please give my kindest regards to your wife. <formal>

Give my love to the children. <informal>

Say hello to Joe. <informal, esp. AmE>

•  Seasonal greetings

Merry Christmas.

Happy New Year.

Happy birthday (to you).

Many happy returns (of your birthday).

  Toasts

Good health. <formal>Your health. <formal>
Cheers! <familiar>Here’s to your new job. <familiar>
Here’s to the future. <familiar>

  Congratulations

Well done! <familiar> (for a success or achievement).

Congratulations on your engagement.

I was delighted to hear about your success/that you won the competition.

I congratulate The Times on the high quality of its reporting.

May we congratulate you on your recent appointment. <formal>

  Condolences, sympathy

Please accept my deepest sympathy on the death of your father. <formal>

I was extremely sorry to hear about your father/that your father has been so ill. <informal>

Offers

  347   In making an offer, you can make use of questions about the wishes of the hearer (see 319–24):

Would you like another couple of slices of túrkey?[1]
Would you like me to mail these létters?[2]
Shall I get you a cháir? <esp. BrE>[3]
Can I carry your bágs upstairs?[4]
Do you want us to drive you hóme?[5]
Want some sóup? <casual>[6]

In answering an offer in the form of a question, we say

eitherYès, pléase. (acceptance)
or, thánk you. (refusal)

More <polite> acceptances:

Yès, pléase. That’s very Images of you.

Yés, thánk you, I’d lòve some more. (answer to [1] above)

Note that thank you can be used in accepting, as well as refusing. More <polite> refusals include an explanation of the refusal:

That’s very Images of you, but I couldn’t pòssibly manage any mòre. (answer to [1] above)

, thank you very múch. I’m just lèaving. (answer to [3])

In <familiar> English, commands are often used in making offers:

Have some more còffee.

Sit down and make yourself at hòme.

Let me get a chàir for you. (see 498)

After the offer has been accepted, the other person need not say anything when he/she performs the service. Especially in <BrE>, quite often people just smile, or say Here you are (e.g. on bringing some food), or There you are (e.g. on opening a window, bringing a chair, etc.).

Invitations

  348   Come in and sit dòwn. <familiar>

Would you like to come with mé?

How would you like to come and spend a wèek with us next yèar?

May we invite you to Images next Saturday? <formal, polite>

Here is a typical sequence:

[A]

Are you doing anything tomorrow évening?

[B]

.

[A]

Then perhaps you’d be interested in joining us for a meal at a restaurant in tówn.

[B]

Thank you very mùch. That’s very Images of you. I’d lòve to.

In <politely> refusing the invitation, [B] might say:

Well, that’s very Images of you – but I’m afraid I have already arranged/ promised to … What a Images, I would have so much enjŏyed it.

Vocatives

  349   To get someone’s attention or to select your addressee, you can use a vocative such as John, Mrs Johnson, Dr Smith:

Jŏhn, I wànt you.

Plèase, Jenny, stòp.

Now just a mòment, Mr Wílliams.

Thànk you, Dr Gomez.

Vocatives can also be used more generally to mark the speaker’s relation to the hearer. Nowadays by far the most common forms of address are given names (Susan, Peter, etc.), including short forms or pet forms (Sue, Pete, Suzy, etc.). These are no longer felt to be ‘familiar’, but can be used for acquaintances as well as friends. The following are some of the many examples of the <familiar> use of vocatives: dad(dy); mum(my); (you) guys <familiar AmE>; (my) dear; (my) darling; honey <AmE>.

In contrast, sir and madam are vocatives which mark respect to a stranger (typically used by service personnel such as hotel staff in addressing a customer):

Did you order a tàxi, mádam? <formal>

In special situations, other titles of respect can be used as vocatives: Ladies and gentlemen! (<formal> opening of a speech); My Lord (to a peer, a bishop, a British judge, etc.); Your honor (to an American judge); Your Excellency (to an ambassador); Mr President; Prime Minister. These are mostly <infrequent and formal>. Somewhat more common are respectful professional forms of address, e.g. Father (to a priest); Doctor (to a medical doctor).

  350   English is restricted in forms of address to strangers. Sir and (especially) madam are too <formal> to be used in most situations. Miss as a vocative is by many considered <impolite>. Many people even feel that occupational vocatives like waiter or driver are <rather impolite>, although others, like nurse (= ‘nursing sister’) or operator (telephone operator) are acceptable:

Would you help me, please, operator? I’m trying to get through to a number in Copenhagen.

Thus to get the attention of a stranger, you have to rely on Excuse me! or in <AmE> Pardon me!: Excuse me, is this the way to the post office?

SECTION D

Meanings in connected discourse

  351   In Sections A, B and C we have considered aspects of meaning in isolation, but in this final section we will think about how meanings may be put together and presented in a spoken or written discourse. That is, we shall be discussing style and presentation of ideas. We start with the organization of connections within and between sentences.

Linking signals

  352   Whether in speech or in writing, you help people to understand your message by signalling how one idea leads on from another. The words and phrases which have this connecting function are like ‘signposts’ on a journey. Most of them in English are sentence adverbials, and they generally come at the beginning of a sentence. Their most important functions are as follows.

Making a new start or a transition

  353   Well and now, placed at the front of an utterance in <speech>, signal a new start in the train of thought:

[A]

You remember that puppy we found?

[B]

Yes.

[A]

Wěll, we adopted it, and now it has some puppies of its own.

Well here means roughly ‘I am now going to tell you something new’. But elsewhere, well often signals an in-between response, for example, where a speaker cannot give a definite ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer:

[A]

He’s selling you those for two hundred and fifty bucks?

[B]

Well, seventy-five.

Well is particularly common when the speaker is asked for an opinion:

[A]

What did you think of that play?

[B]

Well, I wasn’t really happy about the translation into the television medium.

Now often signals a return to an earlier train of thought:

Well, that finishes thàt. Now what was the òther thing I wanted to ask you?

Changing the subject

  354   Incidentally or by the way <informal> can be used to change the subject:

I think I’ve been a bit absent-minded over that letter. Incidentally, /By the way, this fax machine doesn’t seem to be working properly.

Listing and adding

  355   In <writing> and <formal speech>:

•  You can list a series of points by such adverbs as firstly(or first), secondly), next, last(ly) (or finally).

•  Phrases such as to begin with, in the second place, and to conclude can also be used.

•  Similar to these adverbials are also, moreover, furthermore, what is more, etc. which indicate that an additional point is being made (see 238):

Several reasons were given for the change in the attitude of many students in the 1960s. To begin with, they feared the outbreak of nuclear war. Secondly, they were concerned over the continuing pollution of the environment. Not enough progress, moreover, had been made in reducing poverty or racial discrimination … And to conclude, they felt frustrated in their attempts to influence political decisions. <formal, written>

Expressions like And another thing … and I might add … are useful, particularly in spoken debate or discussion.

Reinforcement

  356   Besides, in any case <informal>, in fact and anyway <informal> are other sentence adverbials indicating an additional point in an argument. They are used to reinforce an argument in a situation where a preceding argument might not seem sufficient:

Ray won’t have any proof of my guilt. Besides, he doesn’t suspect me of having any connection with the recent robberies.

Further(more) <more formal> and what is more can be used in a similar way.

Summary and generalization

  357   To lead into a brief summary of points already made, you can write in a word, in short, or to sum up:

The Foundation could be custodian of a central fund of charities. It could plan and finance a stock of books, tapes and films. In a word, it could do plenty.

Here is another example, from a book review:

The techniques discussed are valuable. Sensible stress is laid on preparatory and follow-up work. Each chapter is supported by a well-selected bibliography. In short, this is a clearly written textbook that should prove extremely valuable to teachers.

Other linking phrases serve to indicate a generalization from points already made: in all, all in all, altogether, more generally, etc. These are used in a similar way to the summary signals. Thus in all could replace in short in the quotation above.

Explanation

  358   A point already made can be explained in three ways:

•  by expanding and clarifying its meanings: that is, that is to say, i.e.

•  by giving a more precise description: namely, viz.

•  by giving an illustration: for example, for instance

These expressions are typical of <written> English:

It is important that young children should see things, and not merely read about them. That is, the best education is through direct experience and discovery.

Role-playing can be done for quite a different purpose: to evaluate procedures, regardless of individuals. For example, a sales presentation can be evaluated through role-playing.

In the middle of a sentence, these forms can also link two structures in apposition (see 470–2):

A good example is a plant, proverbial for its bitter taste, namely wormwood.

Note

The Latin abbreviations i.e., viz. and e.g. are mainly found in <formal written> texts. They are normally read aloud as ‘that is’, ‘namely’, and ‘for example’, respectively.

Reformulation

  359   Sometimes, to make our ideas clearer, we explain or modify them by putting them in other words. Such reformulation can be introduced by an adverbial like in other words, rather, better:

Be natural. In other words, be yourself.

We decided, or rather it was decided, to pull the place down.

The following can also be used in spoken discussion: What I mean is …, What I’m saying is

Linking clauses and sentences

  360   We can think of a clause – the unit which may express a statement – as the basic unit of meaning in a discourse. Grammar provides three main ways of putting clauses together:

[A]

COORDINATION: You can coordinate them by the conjunctions and, or, but, both … and, etc. (see 515–20).

[B]

SUBORDINATION: You can subordinate one clause to another (i.e. make it into a subclause, see 709–17), using such conjunctions as when, if, and because.

[C]

ADVERBIAL LINK: You can connect the two ideas by using a linking sentence adverbial (see 479), such as yet, moreover, and meanwhile.

Contrast

  361   The three methods (coordination, subordination, and adverbial link) are illustrated here for the relation of contrast (see 211):

[A]

The conversation went on but Rebecca stopped listening.

[B]

Although Quebec did not break its ties with the rest of Canada, it did not feel itself part of the Confederation.

The country around Cambridge is flat and not particularly spectacular, though it offers easy going to the foot traveller.

[C]

In theory, most companies would like to double their profits in a year. However, few could really handle it, and most companies wouldn’t even try.

Note

For a stronger and more emphatic link, occasionally we find a combination of a sentence adverbial with coordination or subordination:

[A] + [C]

He was extremely tired, but he was nevertheless unable to sleep until after midnight.

[B] + [C]

Although he was suffering from fatigue as a result of the long journey, yet because of the noise, he lay awake in his bed, thinking over the events of the day until the early hours of the morning. <formal, rather rhetorical>

Choice between coordination, subordination and linking adverbial

  362   [1]  Coordination is often a ‘looser’ connection than the others, because it is more vague (see 371) and less emphatic. Clause coordination is more characteristic of <informal> than of <formal> style.

[2]  Subordination tends to give a clause a less important part in the information conveyed by a sentence. Thus an adverbial subordinate clause is often used when the information in that clause is already wholly or partly known or expected by the hearer (see 405–7):

They gave her something warm to wear, and she went to change in the bathroom. When she came back, the dinner was already on the table.

[3]  Adverbial links are often used to connect longer stretches of language, perhaps whole sentences which themselves contain coordinate or subordinate clauses (see example [C] in 361).

Other meaning-links

  363   Here are some other examples of meaning-links to show how English offers a choice between coordination [Co], subordination [Sub], and adverbial links [Ad]. In the case of coordination (and sometimes of subordination), we place an adverbial in brackets where it can be added to make the link more specific. (Cross-references show where these meaning-links are discussed in Section A.)

Time-when (see 151–60)

364

[Co]

Penelope stopped the car and (then) rolled down the windows.

 

[Sub]

After chatting to Davidson for a few minutes longer, he went back to his office.

 

[Ad]

She studied the letter for a long time. Then she turned back to Wilson and smiled.

Cause, reason, result (see 197–207)

365

[Co]

She ran out of money, and (therefore) had to look for a job.

 

[Sub]

Since a customer had arrived in the shop, Samantha said no more.

 

 

The prisoners had a secret radio, so (that) they could receive messages from the outside world.

 

[Ad]

When children reach the age of 11 or 12, they start growing fast. They therefore need more protein.

Positive condition (see 207–8)

  366   The conjunction and can express a condition, but only in some contexts such as commanding, advising, etc.:

[Co]

Take this medicine, and (then) you’ll feel better. <informal>

[Sub]

If you take this medicine, you’ll feel better.

[Ad]

You ought to take your medicine regularly, as the doctor ordered. You’d feel better, then. <informal>

Negative condition (see 209)

  367   Or can be used to express a negative condition in the same contexts as in 366 [Co].

[Co]

You’d better put your overcoat on, or (else) you’ll catch a cold. <informal>

[Sub]

Unless you put on your overcoat, you’ll catch a cold.

[Ad]

I should wear an overcoat if I were you; otherwise, you’ll catch a cold.

Condition + contrast (see 213–14)

368

[Sub]

However much advice we give him, he (still) does exactly what he wants.

 

[Ad]

It doesn’t matter how much advice we give him: he still does exactly what he wants.

(Coordination alone cannot indicate condition + contrast.)

Addition (see 238–42, 355–6)

369

[Co]

She’s (both) a professional artist and a first-rate teacher (see 520).

~ She’s not only a professional artist, but (also) a first-rate teacher.

 

[Sub]

As well as (being) a professional artist, she’s (also) a first-rate teacher.

 

[Ad]

She’s well known all over the country as a professional artist. What’s more, she’s a first-rate teacher.

Alternatives (compare 242)

370

[Co]

We can (either) meet this afternoon, or (else) we can discuss the matter at dinner (see 520).

 

[Ad]

Would you like us to have a meeting about the matter this afternoon? Otherwise we could discuss it at dinner.

 

[Ad]

I may be able to cross the mountains into Switzerland. Alternatively, I may get a boat at Marseilles.

(Alternatives cannot be expressed by subordination.)

‘General purpose’ links

  371   As you can see from 364–6, 369, and is a ‘general purpose’ linking word, which can adapt its meaning according to context. Any positive link between two ideas can be expressed by and. English has three other methods of vague or ‘general purpose’ connection of this kind. They are:

[A] Relative clauses (see 686–94)

[B] Participle and verbless clauses (see 493–4)

[C] Grammatically unlinked clauses

Relative clauses

  372   Notice the equivalence between a coordinate clause with and, and a non-restrictive relative clause (see 110–11, 693):

We have arrived at the hotel, and find it very comfortable.

~ We have arrived at the hotel, which we find very comfortable.

The same equivalence is seen in sentence relative clauses (see 694). Here the relative pronoun points back to a whole clause or sentence:

He’s spending too much time on sport, and that’s not good for his school work.

~ He’s spending too much time on sport, which is not good for his school work.

Restrictive clauses also have a flexible connecting function. In the sentences [1–3], the implied links are reason, time-when, and condition:

•  Reason:

image

•  Time-when:

image

•  Condition:

image

Participle and verbless clauses

  373   These clauses (see 493–4), more characteristic of <formal written> English, also have a varied ‘general purpose’ linking function, as these examples show:

•  Reason:

Being an only child, she had never seen a baby without its outer wrappings.

(‘As she was an only child …’)

•  Time-when:

Cleared, the site will be very valuable. <rather formal>

(‘When it is cleared …’)

•  Condition:

Cleared, the site would be very valuable. <rather formal>

(‘If it were cleared …’)

•  Means:

Using a sharp axe, they broke down the door. <rather formal>

(‘By using a sharp axe …’)

•  Reason:

She stared silently at the floor, too nervous to reply. <rather formal>

(‘… because she was too nervous …’)

Unlinked clauses

  374   Two neighbouring clauses may be grammatically unlinked. For example, they may be separated in writing by a period (.) or a semi-colon (;) a colon (:) or a dash (–). But this does not mean there is no connection of meaning between them; it means, rather, that the connection is implicit, and has to be inferred by the hearer or reader.

In <informal speech>, a speaker frequently relies on such implied connections, whereas in <writing>, the writer would often make the connection clear by sentence adverbial or coordination. These examples can be compared with the [Ad] sentences of 364–70 (the ‘missing link’ is indicated in small type in [square brackets]):

He loaded the pistol carefully; [then] he took aim … a shot rang out. (TIME)

She had to look for a job – [because] she had run out of money. (REASON)

Take this medicine: [if you do] it’ll make you feel better. (CONDITION)

Cross-reference and omission

  375   Clauses are often connected not only because of a meaning-link of the kinds we have considered, but because they share some content, e.g. they may be talking about the same person:

My brother was wearing a raincoat. So my brother didn’t get wet.

We can, if we like, link these two sentences into one sentence, linking them with an adverb like so, without changing them: My brother was wearing a raincoat, so my brother didn’t get wet. But generally, we avoid repeating the shared words and content, either

by cross-reference (using a pronoun such as he); or

by omitting the repeated element(s):

My brother was wearing a raincoat, and so (he) didn’t get wet.

Cross-reference and omission are very useful and important: (A) they shorten the message, and (B) they can make the connections of meaning more easy to grasp. We may say that they make the structure of the sentence ‘tighter’. The general rule is: CROSS-REFER AND OMIT WHEREVER YOU CAN, EXCEPT WHERE THIS LEADS TO AMBIGUITY. We now consider some of the ways in which the English language allows these things. We consider cross-reference and omission together, and see how repetition can be avoided by these methods. Sometimes one method is available, sometimes the other, and sometimes both. Similar to cross-reference in shortening and ‘tightening’ the message is substitution – where a pronoun or other ‘pro-form’ replaces another expression (see 379–389).

Cross-reference to noun phrases

3rd person pronouns

  376   The personal pronouns he, she, it, they, etc. (see 619–22) cross-refer to noun phrases, and agree with them in number and/or gender (see 529, 597–601). In these examples, the noun phrase and the pronoun are in italics:

Henrietta looked down at her left hand. It was covered with blood.

The new psychology professor kept her distance. She did not call students by their first names.

Bill gave an inward groan. He felt that the situation was getting beyond him.

Millions of flies were on their way towards us.

Notice that the plural pronouns they, them, etc. substitute not only for plural noun phrases, but for coordinated singular noun phrases such as Red and Handley:

I know Red and Handley well. They are both painters.

In the morning, Power and Ross rose at dawn and began their day’s work.

Note

[a]

On the choice between he, she and they when sex is unspecified, see 96.

[b]

Reflexive pronouns (himself, themselves, etc.) (see 626–8) and relative pronouns (see 686–94) behave in a similar way to personal pronouns in signalling cross-reference:

He hurt himself. ~ She hurt herself. ~ They hurt themselves.

The man who was injured … ~ The house which was destroyed …

1st and 2nd person pronouns

  377   Occasionally, 1st and 2nd person pronouns substitute for coordinate noun phrases. If a 1st person pronoun is present in the noun phrase, agreement is with the 1st person:

You and I should get together sometime and share our ideas.

My wife and I are going to Argentina. We hope to stay with some friends.

If a 2nd person pronoun is present without a 1st person pronoun, agreement is with the 2nd person pronoun:

You and John can stop work now. You can both eat your lunch in the kitchen.

Do you and your husband have a car? I may have to beg a lift from you.

Special cases

  378    •  Quantifiers (see 675–80). Sometimes a plural pronoun cross-refers to quantifier pronouns like everybody, somebody, no one, and anyone:

Everybody looked after themselves.

This compares with the more <formal> use of singular pronouns such as he or she (see 96):

One of the most important things anyone can do in business is consider his or her future connections.

•  Group nouns. For cross-reference a singular noun referring to a group of people can be treated as a singular inanimate noun (when we are thinking of the group as a unit):

It is a family which traces its history from the Norman Conquest. (see 510)

A group noun can also be treated as a plural human noun (when we are thinking of the members of the group):

They are a family who quarrel among themselves.

Quantifier pronouns as substitutes for noun phrases

  379   Other pronouns such as one, some, each, none (see 676) can act as substitutes for a noun phrase.

•  Substitution for singular count noun phrases

[A] Would you like a cup of tea?

[B] No, thanks – I’ve just had one. (one=‘a cup of tea’)

•  Substitution for plural count noun phrases

Can you give me a few stamps? I need some for these postcards. (some = ‘some stamps’)

The museum has twenty rooms, each portraying a period in the country’s history. (each = ‘each room’)

We lost most of the games, but not quite all. (‘all of them’)

Proust and James are great novelists, but I like Tolstoy better than either. (‘either of them’)

Two members of the panel later told the Court about receiving anonymous telephone calls. Neither was seated on the jury. (‘Neither of the two members’)

These books are heavy. You carry one half, and I’ll carry the other. (‘You carry half of them, and I’ll carry the other half of them’)

She had learned from her mistakes of the past – only a few but enough. (‘only a few mistakes, but enough mistakes’)

[A] You’ve only got one CD, haven’t you?

[B] I’ve got several. (‘several CDs’)

•  Substitution for mass noun phrases

Some of the equipment has been damaged, but none has been lost.

I’d like some paper, if you have any.

  380    •  Substitutes for nouns and parts of noun phrases

The pronoun one (680) can substitute for a noun, as well as for a whole noun phrase:

Have you seen any knives? I need a sharp one. (‘a sharp knife’)

She moved down the row of freight cars, checking for the serial number which corresponded to the one (‘serial number’) Teufel had written down for her.

The plural of one in this sense is ones:

Plastic pots are usually more expensive than clay ones.

Notice that one cannot replace mass nouns; instead, the noun is omitted: Which wine would you like? The red or the white? (‘The red wine or the white wine?’)

  381   Sometimes there is a choice (with count nouns) between one and omission:

This house is bigger than my last (one).

Navneet had a shop in Hong Kong and another (one) in Bombay.

His bus broke down, and he had to wait for over two hours for the next (one).

I know her two older children, but I don’t know the youngest (one).

  382   With following modifiers, the pronouns that and those can act as substitutes with definite meaning (= ‘the one’, ‘the ones’). That as a substitute pronoun always has non-personal reference:

The hole was about as big as that (‘the hole’) made by a rocket. <rather formal>

The paintings of Gaugin’s Tahiti period are more famous than those (= ‘the ones’) he painted in France. <rather formal>

That can also be used as a substitute with a mass noun:

The plumage of the male pheasant is far more colourful than that (= ‘the plumage’) of the female. <rather formal>

These uses of that and those are rather <formal>, and are virtually restricted to <written> English.

Substitutes for structures containing a verb

The auxiliary verb do

  383   The dummy auxiliary verb do (479) can act as a substitute for the whole of a clause apart from the subject:

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You can also omit the whole clause following the subject:

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Notice that in <informal> English, speakers change the pronoun subject from I (etc.) to its objective form (me, etc.) when the rest of the sentence is omitted. But in place of [1b] and [1c] above, the choice that is most generally acceptable is He can cook better than she can (see 384 below).

Do can also substitute for the part of a clause excluding subject and adverbial:

[A] Have you written to your father yet?

[B] Yes, I did last week. (‘I wrote to my father …’)

Occasionally do acts as a substitute for a verb phrase alone:

She likes Ryan’s Steak House better than she does Old Country Buffet. (does = ‘likes’)

Omission following an operator

  384   In cases like those in 383, you can use other auxiliaries in a parallel position to do. That is, you can omit the whole or part of the sentence following an auxiliary:

I’ll open a bank account if yòu wíll. (= ‘… if you will do so’)

He can cook as well as shè can. (= ‘can cook’)

[A] He is working late this week. [B] Yes, he was làst week, tòo. (= ‘… was working late last week, too’)

You can play in the garden, but you mustn’t in the garage. (= ‘… mustn’t play in the garage’)

Do and the other auxiliaries are unstressed, except in cases of affirmation and denial (see 264–5), or where they have some sort of contrastive meaning:

[A] Are you going to clean the car?

[B] I cŏuld, and shŏuld, but I don’t think I wíll.

The omission also occurs after two or three auxiliaries:

[A]

Is the kettle boiling?

[B]

It mày bè. (‘… be boiling’)

[A]

Did you lock the door?

[B]

No, I shòuld hàve, but I forgot.

Note

[a]

Be as a main verb (see 482) cannot be omitted after an auxiliary:

If they’re not asleep, they shòuld be. (= ‘… be asleep’)

[b]

In <BrE>, do or done is sometimes added after another auxiliary:

He can’t promise to come tonight, but he măy do. (= ‘… come tonight’)

[A]

Would you please unlock the door?

[B]

I hàve done.

The main verb do: do it, do that, do so

  385   The main verb do (see 479) acts as a substitute for a main verb, normally a verb denoting some action or activity. Do requires an object, which may be it, that, or so:

If we want to preserve our power, this is the way to do it. (‘to preserve our power’)

They have promised to increase pensions by 10 per cent. If they do so, it will make a big difference to old people. (‘If they do increase pensions …’)

Do that is generally more emphatic and <informal>:

They say he sleeps in his shoes and socks. Why ever does he do thàt?

It’s easy for you to talk – you travel around the world. We would love to do that too.

Substitutes for that-clauses

So after a verb, and omission after a verb

  386   So is a substitute for that-clauses representing reported statements, beliefs, assumptions, emotions, etc.:

The government won’t provide the money – I have heard the minister say so. (‘… say that the government won’t …’)

It’s silly, childish, running after them like that. I told Ben so. (‘… told him that it’s silly …’)

[A] Has Ivan gone home?

[B] I thìnk só. / I gùess só. <AmE> / I suppòse só. / I hòpe só. / I’m afràid só.

Not replaces so in negative clauses: I hope not, I’m afraid not, etc. But, with verbs taking transferred negation (see 587), it is more natural to say: I don’t think so; I don’t suppose so; etc.:

[A] Are there any questions you want to ask us, Ms Blake?

[B] No, I don’t think so.

In sentences expressing certainty and doubt (see 294–5) we cannot use so, but have to say: I’m sure they are; I’m sure of it; I doubt if they are; I doubt it; etc.

In comparative clauses (505), the whole of a than-clause can be omitted:

He’s older than I thought (‘… than I thought he was’).

The journey took longer than we had hoped.

Also, after the verbs know, ask, and tell, a whole that-clause is frequently omitted in conversation:

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So cannot be used after know and ask.

Substitutes for wh-clauses

  387   The whole of a wh-clause following the wh-word can be omitted:

Someone has hidden my notebook, but I don’t know who/where/why. (= ‘I don’t know who has hidden my notebook’, etc.)

This cannot be done with whether and if.

Substitutes for to-infinitive clause

  388   With infinitive clauses, you can omit the whole of the clause following to:

[A] Why don’t you come and stay with us?

[B] I’d lòve to (do so).

You can borrow my pèn, if you wánt to (do so).

If this pain gets much worse, I shan’t be able to move around much. The doctor has told me nòt to (do so), anyway.

Somebody ought to help you. Shall I ask Pěter to (do so)?

As we see, there is a choice between including do so (which is <more formal>) and omitting it. With some verbs, such as want, like and ask, the whole of the infinitive clause, including to, can be omitted, especially in <informal> English:

You can borrow my pen, if you want/like. <informal>

Shall I ask Peter? <informal>

It, that, this as clause substitutes

  389   The definite pronouns it, that, and this are widely used as substitutes for clauses as well as for noun phrases (see 94, 99, 376):

If you make a sound, you’ll regret it. (‘regret making a sound’)

[A] She’s having a baby.

[B] How did you know thàt? (i.e. ‘… know that she’s having a baby’)

After many weeks of rain, the dam burst. This resulted in widespread flooding and much loss of livestock and property. (′The bursting of the dam resulted in …’)

Other strategies of omission

  390   Other structures which allow us to shorten a sentence by omission are coordinated structures, non-finite clauses, and verbless clauses. All these structures will be further discussed in Part Three (515–20, 493–4), so here we merely give a few examples of the varied types of omission that occur in them, showing how these provide briefer alternatives to substitution and repetition.

Omission through coordination

  391   (′The elements which are or can be omitted in coordination are in italics.)

George Best travelled fearing the worst, but was pleasantly surprised. (‘… but he was pleasantly surprised.’)

Particular attention was given to the nuclear tests conference and to the question of disarmament.

(‘Particular attention was given to the nuclear tests conference and particular attention was given to the question of disarmament.’)

Peter cut himself a slice of bread and some cheese.

(‘Peter cut himself a slice of bread; he (also) cut himself some cheese.’)

She is not only a trained mathematician, but a good singer.

(‘She is not only a trained mathematician, but she is a good singer.’)

Either Germany or Brazil will win the World Cup.

(‘Germany will win the World Cup; or (else) Brazil will do so.’)

Tom washes and irons his own shirts.

(Tom washes his own shirts; he irons them (too).’)

In general, the same omissions cannot be made when one of the clauses is subordinate to the others. We can say:

She was exhausted and went to sleep.

BUT NOT:

*She was so exhausted that went to sleep.

In the subclause we have to repeat the subject:

She was so exhausted (that) she went to sleep.

But there are a few cases where subclauses follow the coordinate clause pattern:

The rain stopped, though not the wind.

Omission in non-finite clauses

  392   Non-finite clauses (see 493) have no operator (see 609–12), and most of them have no conjunction or subject. Thus in comparison with finite subclauses they are more economical and avoid repetition. Probably for this reason, adverbial -ing clauses and -ed clauses are particularly favoured in <formal or written> styles of English. We now illustrate these points with equivalent finite clauses:

•  to-INFINITIVE CLAUSE: I hope to get in touch with you soon.

(= ‘I hope that I will get in touch with you soon.’)

•  -ing CLAUSE: Coming home late one evening, I heard something which made my blood freeze in horror.

(= ‘When I was coming home …’)

•  -ed CLAUSE: The man injured by the bullet was taken to hospital.

(= ‘The man who was injured by the bullet …’)

  393   The same applies to adverbial non-finite clauses introduced by a subordinator:

•  –ing CLAUSE: It’s a trick I learned while recovering from an illness.

(= ‘… while I was recovering …’)

•  –ed CLAUSE: Though defeated, she remained a popular leader of the party. <rather formal>

(= Though she had been defeated …’)

Omission in verbless clauses

  394   Verbless clauses (see 494) have no verb and usually no subject:

Whether right or wrong, he usually wins the argument.

(= ‘Whether he is right or wrong …’)

A man of few words, Uncle George declined to express an opinion. <formal>

(= ‘Being a man of few words/As he was a man of few words …’)

Verbless clauses, like participial clauses, often belong to a more <formal> style, and belong mainly to <written> English.

Note

Not all subordinators can introduce participial and verbless clauses. For example, although, if, once and when can do so, but because, as, and since (as conjunctions of reason) cannot. Compare:

Since she left school, she’s had several different jobs. [1]

Since you knew the answer, why didn’t you speak up? [2]

In [1], the clause of time can be replaced by Since leaving school, but in [2], the clause of reason cannot be replaced by *Since knowing the answer.

Presenting and focusing information

  395   We now deal with the ways in which meanings can be presented and arranged for effective communication. For a message to be properly understood,

•  the message has to be cut up into individual pieces of information (see 396–8)

•  the ideas have to be given the right emphasis (see 399–409)

•  the ideas have to be put in the right order (see 410–32).

Pieces of information

  396   In <written> English, a piece of information can be defined as a piece of language which is separated from what goes before and from what follows by punctuation marks (.,;:–?!), and which does not itself contain any punctuation marks. In <spoken> English, a piece of information can be defined as a tone unit (see 37), i.e. a unit of intonation containing a nucleus (see 36). Notice the difference, in <written> English, between:

image

In a sense (see 369, 374) [1] and [2] ‘mean the same’, but [1] presents the message as one piece of information, while [2] presents it as two pieces of information, separated by a punctuation mark (;). In <speech>, the same contrast is seen in:

image

Dividing the message into tone units

  397   There is no exact match between punctuation in <writing> and tone units in <speech>. Speech is more variable in its structuring of information than writing. Cutting up speech into tone units depends on:

•  the speed at which you are speaking,

•  what emphasis you want to give to parts of the message,

•  the length of grammatical units.

A single sentence may have just one tone unit, like [1a]; but when the length of a sentence goes beyond a few words, it is difficult not to divide it into two or more separate pieces of information.

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  398   For guidance, the following general rules are useful in knowing when to start a new tone unit:

•   If a sentence begins with a clause or adverbial phrase, give the clause or adverbial element a separate tone unit:

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•   If a sentence contains a non-restrictive modifier (see 99–102), such as a non-restrictive relative clause (see 693), give the modifier a separate tone unit:

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•   Similarly, give any medial phrase or clause a separate tone unit:

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•   A vocative or linking adverb usually has its own tone unit (or at least ends a tone unit):

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•   Give a separate tone unit to a clause or long noun phrase acting as a subject:

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•   If two or more clauses are coordinated, give them each a separate tone unit:

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But the overriding rule is: give a separate tone unit to each separate piece of information, even if none of the above conditions apply. For example:

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End–focus and contrastive focus

  399   The nucleus is the most important part of a tone unit: it marks the focus of information, or the part of the unit to which the speaker especially draws the hearer’s attention. Normally, the nucleus is at the end of the tone unit; or, to be more precise, on the last major-class word (noun, main verb, adjective, or adverb – see 744), in the tone unit. Which syllable of the word is stressed, if it has more than one syllable, is determined by ordinary conventions of word stress: to’day, ‘working, ‘photograph, conver’sation, etc. This neutral position of the nucleus, which we see in nearly all the examples in 398, is called end-focus.

Note

Two or more nouns together (see 651) often behave, for stress purposes, like a single word (i.e. like a noun compound), with the main stress on the first noun: ‘export records; ‘building plan; ‘traffic problem. (But this is not an invariable rule: contrast town ‘hall, country ‘house, lawn ‘tennis, etc.)

  400   But in other cases speakers shift the nucleus to an earlier part of the tone unit. They do this when you want to draw attention to an earlier part of the tone unit, usually to contrast it with something already mentioned, or understood in the context. For this reason, we call earlier placing of the nucleus contrastive focus. Here are some examples:

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In cases like the following examples, contrastive meaning is signalled by a fall–rise tone (see 41), with a fall on the nucleus and a rise on the last stressed syllable in the tone unit:

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In other sentences, there can be a double contrast, each contrast indicated by its own nucleus:

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  401   Sometimes contrastive focus draws attention to a whole phrase (e.g. her mother in [5]); at other times, it is a single word that receives the focus (e.g. often in [2]). Even words like personal pronouns, conjunctions, prepositions, and auxiliaries, which are not normally stressed at all, can receive nuclear stress for special contrastive purposes:

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In some cases, e.g. [7] and [8], contrastive focus comes later rather than earlier than normal end-focus. Thus the normal way to say Who does he work for? [8] would be with focus on the verb, not the preposition:

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Note

In exceptional cases, contrastive stress in a word of more than one syllable may shift to a syllable which does not normally have word stress. For example, if you want to make a contrast between the two words normally pronounced bu‘reaucracy and au'tocracy you may do so as follows:

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Given and new information

  402   We can roughly divide the information in a message into

•  Given information (something which the speaker assumes the hearer knows about already) and

•  New information (something which the speaker does not assume the hearer knows about already).

In [7] above, ‘She was speaking’ is given information: it is already given by the preceding clause; in [9], ‘you see him’ is given information for the same reason:

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As new information is obviously what is most important in a message, it receives the information focus (i.e. nucleus), whereas old information does not. Naturally, personal pronouns and other substitute words, because they refer to something already mentioned or understood, normally count as given information.

Note

Notice that given information and new information are what the speaker presents as given and new respectively. What in fact the hearer knows or assumes may be a different thing. For example, consider this dialogue:

image

The position of the nucleus here means that speaker [B] takes it as ‘given’ that Picasso is a modern painter.

Information given by situation

  403   ‘Given information’ is not just information which has already been mentioned or suggested. We may extend this notion to include information which is ‘given’ by the situation outside language. In this respect ‘given’ information is like definite meaning (see 82–99), and there is indeed a strong connection between given information and definiteness. In the following examples, for which we give the most natural intonation, the definite items today, here, and mine in [10], [11], [12] do not have a nuclear stress because their meaning is given by the situation. In contrast, the items Saturday, factory, and sister’s in [10a], [11a], and [12a] are most likely to be new information, and therefore to receive nuclear stress:

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But the definite items today, here, etc., could have nuclear stress if some contrast were implied:

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  404   In other examples, the information given by the situation outside language is more a matter of what is expected in a given context:

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In a natural situation, the final part of each of these sentences conveys little information, and therefore does not receive the nucleus. In a home, the one thing to announce about kettles is that they are ‘boiling’; and the one thing you expect the mail to do is to ‘come’ etc. Therefore the nucleus occurs, contrary to end-focus, on the earlier and more informative part of the sentence.

Main and subsidiary information

  405   Information is also relevant to the choice of tone (see 38–41) on the nucleus. We tend to use a falling tone to give emphasis to the main information in a sentence, and a rising tone (or, with more emphasis, a fall–rise tone) to give subsidiary or less important information, i.e. information which is more predictable from the context. Subordinate clauses and adverbials often give information which is subsidiary to the idea in the rest of the main clause:

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Subsidiary information may either precede or follow the main information. Speaker [B] could also say here:

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Adverbials as main and subsidiary information

  406   Adverbials following the main clause often have a rising tone to indicate subsidiary information added as an afterthought:

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But a final adverbial clause can also occasionally contain the main new information:

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Shorter final adverbials are often included in the same tone unit as the rest of the clause, and may bear the main focus:

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Main and subsidiary information in writing

  407   In <writing>, you cannot point to important information by using intonation, so you have to rely on ordering and subordination of clauses instead. The general rule is that the most important new information is saved up to the end, comparable to the end focus principle in <speech>. Thus the sentence finishes with a sort of climax (here indicated by italics):

Arguments in favour of a new building plan, said the mayor, included suggestions that if a new shopping centre were not built, the city’s traffic problems would soon become unmanageable.

In reading this sentence aloud, it is natural to put a rising or fall-rise tone on all points of information except the last, which receives a falling tone.

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End-focus and end-weight

  408   When deciding in which order to place the ideas in a sentence, there are two principles to remember:

•  End-focus (see 399): The new or most important idea or message in a piece of information should be placed towards the end, where in speech the nucleus of the tone unit normally falls. In <writing> and prepared <speech>, as we saw in 407, this principle can be applied not just to a single piece of information, but to a whole sentence containing many pieces of information. A sentence is generally more effective (especially in <writing>) if the main point is saved up to the end.

•  End-weight: The more ‘weighty’ part(s) of a sentence should be placed towards the end (see 409, 416, 424–7, 429). Otherwise the sentence may sound awkward and unbalanced. The ‘weight’ of an element can be defined in terms of its length (i.e. the number of its syllables or words).

  409   Both end-focus and end-weight are useful guiding principles, not invariable rules. As we have said, although end-focus is normal, you are allowed in speech to shift the nucleus to an earlier position in the tone unit, for contrastive focus. Similarly, there are exceptions to end-weight:

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In [1], a long complement phrase (that wasteland of derelict buildings behind the morgue) follows a short subject (my home) and a short verb (was). This sentence keeps to the principle of end-weight. But in [2], the long noun phrase comes first. This sentence breaks the end-weight principle, but it could easily be said by someone wanting to place the main focus of information on my home. In such a case the two principles of end-weight and end-focus conflict. Generally, however, the two principles work together: it is usual for a short element in a sentence (e.g. a pronoun) to have less information than a longer element. For example, in

I’ve been reading a fascinating biography of Catherine the Great.

the subject (I) carries far less information than the long object noun phrase (in italics).

Order and emphasis

Topic

  410   In the rest of this section, we will show that English grammar has quite a number of ways to arrange the message for the right order and the right emphasis. Because of the principles of end-focus and end-weight, the final position in a sentence or clause is, usually, the most important for communication. But the first position is the second most important, because it is usually the part of the sentence which is familiar territory from which we begin the sentence as a mental ‘journey into the unknown’. This is why we call the first element in a clause (leaving aside conjunctions and many adverbials, see 414, Note) the topic. In most statements, the topic is the subject of the sentence. If the statement has only one tone unit, usually the topic does not receive focus, because it often contains old (given) information, and links the statement in meaning to what was said before:

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But sometimes topic and information focus coincide, and in this case, the topic is especially prominent:

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Fronted topic

  411   Instead of the subject, you can make another element the topic, by moving it to the front of the clause or sentence. This shift, called fronting, gives that element a kind of psychological prominence, and has three different effects, represented by the following terms:

•  emphatic topic (see 412)

•  contrastive topic (see 413)

•  semi-given topic (see 414)

Emphatic topic

  412   In <informal> conversation, it is quite common for a speaker to front an element (particularly a complement) and to give it nuclear stress, thus giving it double emphasis:

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It is as if the speaker says the most important thing in his or her mind first, adding the rest of the sentence as an afterthought. The ordering of the elements here is CSV (in [1] and [2]), CSVO (in [3]), and OSVA (in [4]), instead of the normal order SVC, SVOC, SVO (see 487–490).

Contrastive topic

  413   Here the fronting helps to point dramatically to a contrast between two things mentioned in neighbouring sentences or clauses, which often have parallel structure:

Image-2

This construction is not very common, and is associated with <rhetorical> speech.

Semi-given topic

  414   Another type of fronting is found in more <formal>, especially <written> English:

Image-2

The fronting here is more negative: a less important idea is shifted to the front so that end-focus can fall on another, more important idea (easily [1], voice [2], already [3]). The word this or these (as in most of these problems) is often present in the fronted topic, showing that it contains given information. Yet the topic receives a kind of secondary emphasis as the starting-point of the sentence.

Note

We do not normally consider an initial adverbial to be a ‘fronted topic’, because many adverbials can occur fairly freely in front of the subject (see 451):

Yesterday she was trying on her new school uniform.

But some adverbials which are closely connected with the verb, such as those of manner and direction, do not usually occur in front position. These may be said to be ‘fronted’ for special prominence in clauses like

Willingly he’ll never do it.

The moment had come. Upon the ensuing interview the future would depend. <formal, rhetorical>

Inversion

  415   Fronting is often accompanied by inversion; that is, not only the topic element, but the verb phrase, or part of it, is moved before the subject. There are two types of inversion:

Image-2

Subject-verb inversion

  416   Subject-verb inversion is normally limited as follows:

•  The verb phrase consists of a single verb word, in the past or present tense.

•  The verb is an intransitive verb of position (be, stand, lie, etc.) or verb of motion (come, go, fall, etc.).

•  The topic element (X in the diagram above) is an adverbial of place or direction (e.g. down, here, to the right, away):

Image-2

The examples from <informal speech> give end-focus to the subject. In <literary> style, the fronted topic is more useful in giving end-weight to a long subject.

Subject-verb inversion does not take place with a fronted topic when the subject is a personal pronoun:

Here it is. (NOT *Here is it)

Away they go! (NOT *Away go they)

Note

The adverb there is stressed in the example above: There, at the summit, stood the castle…. This distinguishes it from the introductory subject there (see 547), which has no stress. Contrast:

‘There are your frìends. [there = adverb of place]

There are ‘too many pèople here. [there = introductory]

Subject-operator inversion in statements

  417   The inversion of subject and operator (did, can, etc.) is of course obligatory in most questions: e.g. Can you swim? (see 681–4). But here we are concerned with the obligatory subject-operator inversion when a negative element is fronted for emphasis (especially in <formal> and rather <rhetorical> style) (see 303):

NOT A WORD did he say. (= ‘He didn’t say a word’)

UNDER NO CIRCUMSTANCES should the door be left unlocked. <formal>

The negative element is in small capitals above. Inversion is also obligatory after the fronting of words of negative meaning such as never, hardly, scarcely, few, little, seldom, rarely, nor, (not) only (see 584–5):

HARDLY had I left before the trouble started. (= ‘I had hardly left before …’)

Well, she would go and see what it was all about, for ONLY IF SHE KNEW THE WHOLE STORY could she decide.

LITTLE did he realize how much suffering he had caused. (= ‘He little realized …’)

Notice that the dummy operator do is used for the inversion where there is no other operator in the normal-order sentence:

He little realized … ~ Little did he realize …

Note

In <written, literary> English, subject-operator inversion with be sometimes serves the purpose of end-weight, where the subject is long and complex:

OPPOSING HIM was the French Admiral, Jean de Vienne – a great sailor and an able strategist.

NEATLY RANGED AGAINST THE ROCK WALLS were all manner of chests and trunks.

Here the sentence begins with a participle construction (in capitals), which is then followed by the operator and finally by the subject.

Fronting with so

  418   Notice the following constructions in which so is placed first:

•  So as a substitute form with subject-operator inversion (for end-focus) has the meaning of ‘addition’ (see 234) in sentences like:

image

•  So as a substitute form without inversion is fronted to express emphatic affirmation:

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The so-construction here expresses the hearer’s surprise at discovering that what the speaker says is true. As with emphatic affirmation in general (see 264), the nucleus comes on the operator, not on the subject.

•  So introducing a clause of degree or amount (see 231) can be fronted for emphasis, with subject-operator inversion:

So well did he play that he was named man of the match. (= ‘He played so well that …’) <rather literary>

Other constructions affecting the topic

Cleft sentence (it-type)

  419   The cleft sentence construction with introductory it (see 496) is useful for fronting an element as topic, and also for putting focus (usually for contrast) on the topic element. It does this by splitting the sentence into two halves, highlighting the topic by making it the complement of it + be:

image

(For centuries London had been growing as a commercial port of world importance.) But it was in the north of England that industrial power brought new prosperity to the country. (TOPIC = ADVERBIAL)     [2]

The contrastive meaning of the topic can be seen if we make clear the implied negative in [1] and [2]:

It’s the other book, [not that book,] that I want to read.

But it was in the north of England, [not in London,] that …

The cleft sentence with it is particularly useful in <written> English, where we cannot mark contrastive emphasis by intonation.

The verb be in it-cleft sentences can be negated:

It’s not low pay (that) we object to, it’s the extra responsibilities.

As this example shows, there is often a contrast between the negative cleft sentence and a following positive clause.

Cleft sentence (wh-type)

  420   A nominal relative clause (see 592), like an it-cleft sentence, can be used to highlight one element for contrast. It can be either subject or complement of the verb be (the subject position is more common):

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The wh-type cleft sentence, like the it-type, usually implies a contrast; e.g.:

We don’t need more money – what we need is more time.

Comparison of it-type and wh-type cleft sentences

  421   The it-type and the wh-type cleft sentences cannot always be used in the same circumstances. For example, the it-type is more flexible in certain ways:

•  The focus of the wh-type sentence normally has to be in the form of a noun phrase or nominal clause. An adverbial phrase or prepositional phrase, for example, sounds less natural in this construction than in the it-type sentence:

It was only recently that I noticed the leak in the roof.

It was in 1896 that he went to Europe on his first mission.

It was on this very spot that I first met my wife.

(BETTER THAN: Where I first met my wife was on this very spot.)

If the wh-word is an adverb such as where and when, the wh-type sentence sounds somewhat better when the wh-clause comes last:

On this very spot is where I first met my wife.

•  But if an adverbial can be put in the form of a noun phrase, it can be the focus of a wh-type sentence with a final when- or where-clause:

images

Note

A wh-type sentence using one of the wh-words who, whom, or whose is usually awkward or impossible:

It was the ambassador that met us. BUT NOT: *Who met us was the ambassador.

We can, however, say:

The one/person who met us was the ambassador.

  422   The wh-type cleft sentence is more flexible than the it-type in the following ways:

•  The wh-type can focus on the complement of a clause, whereas the it-type normally cannot:

She is a brilliant reporter ˜ What she is is a brilliant reporter.

BUT NOT: *It’s a brilliant reporter that she is.

•   The wh-type can focus on the verb, by using the substitute verb do:

images

Notice that the complement of the wh-type sentence takes the form of a non-finite clause, most commonly a bare infinitive (spoil the whole thing).

Note

The non-finite verb may be a bare infinitive, a to-infinitive, an -ed participle, or an -ing participle (see 493):

images

The bare infinitive is the most usual construction, except after done (where the -ed participle is just as acceptable), and after doing where the -ing participle has to be used.

Sentences with wh-clauses and demonstratives

  423   A common type of sentence in <informal> English is one in which a wh-clause is linked by the verb be to a demonstrative pronoun (this or that). These sentences are similar to wh-cleft sentences both in their structure and in their focusing effect:

This is where I first met my images.

This is how you start the images

Are you trying to wreck my career? Because that’s what you’re doing.

I had difficulty starting the car today. That’s what always happens when I leave it out in cold weather.

Postponement

Introductory-it construction

  424   The introductory-it construction (see 542–6) (not to be confused with the it-type cleft sentence in 420) is a means of postponing a subject clause to a later position in the sentence, either for end-weight or for end-focus:

That income tax will be reduced is unlikely.

˜ It is unlikely that income tax will be reduced.

Here the subject is a that-clause: that income tax will be reduced. The it-construction is, in fact, more usual than the same construction without postponement. If you keep the that-clause in front position, this is exceptional, and suggests (a) that the that-clause is somehow given information, and (b) that you want to put special contrastive emphasis (see 413) on the rest of the main clause:

images

In some instances, such as the passive construction (see 543, 613–18), it is impossible to keep the clause in subject position:

It is said that fear in human beings produces a smell that provokes animals to attack.

BUT NOT: *That fear in human beings produces a smell that provokes animals to attack is said.

For other examples of it replacing a postponed clause as subject, see 542. Main focus often occurs in the postponed clause:

It is unlikely that they will hold a referèndum.

But when an -ing clause is the postponed subject, the main focus normally falls on the rest of the main clause, and the -ing clause is treated as an afterthought:

| It’s hard wòrk | being a fáshion model. |

Postponing an object clause

  425   Occasionally introductory it displaces a clause in object position. Just as in the case of subject clauses (424), the clause (here working here) is postponed:

Images

This displacement must occur when the object clause is a that-clause or an infinitive clause. Thus we can have:

I′ll leave it to you to lock the door.

(BUT NOT: *I′ll leave to lock the door to you.)

Postponing parts of sentence elements

  426   The it-construction postpones a whole sentence element, whether a subject or object. You may also wish to postpone a ‘heavy’ part of a sentence element. For example you may wish to postpone part of a complement, splitting an adjective from its modifier or modifiers:

How ready are they to make peace with their enemies?

This can avoid the awkwardness of a long or emphatic element coming in non-final position, as in How ready to make peace with their enemies are they? The most important cases of such postponement are discussed in 427–9.

Postponing the modifier following a noun

image

image

This postponement avoids awkwardness particularly when the rest of the sentence is short in comparison with the subject. However, in contrast to [2], the word order is normal and fully acceptable in the following sentence with a long agent phrase, where the sentence has a more balanced structure:

The problem of what to do with the money was discussed by all members of the family.

Postponing the emphatic reflexive pronoun

  428   When the reflexive pronouns myself, himself, themselves, etc. are used for emphasis, they normally have nuclear stress. If a reflexive pronoun is in apposition as part of the subject, it is common to postpone it for end-focus:

image

Postponing comparative clauses, etc.

  429   A comparative clause or phrase can be separated, by postponement, from the preceding word it modifies. In some cases, the same sentence without postponement would be extremely awkward:

More people own houses these days than used to years ago.

(NOT: *More people than used to years ago own houses these days.)

He showed less pity to his victims than any other tyrant in history.

(NOT:*He showed less pity than any other tyrant in history to his victims.)

Other modifiers, like comparative clauses, are sometimes postponed for end-weight. These include phrases of exception (see 236):

All of them were arrested except the gang leader himself.

Also clauses of amount or degree following too, enough, and so:

Too many people were there for the thief to escape unseen.

I’ve had enough trouble from those children to last me a lifetime.

I was so excited by the present that I forgot to thank you.

Other choices of position

The passive

  430   Passive sentences provide an important example of a grammatical process which changes the positions of elements in the sentence (see 613–18).

image

In [5], the passive gives the sentence end-focus, where the active (My uncle bought them) would not. In [6], the passive gives end-weight, where the active sentence (Most of the radical … mistrusted the President) would be awkward because of a ‘heavy’ subject. You can readily use the passive for end-weight where the subject of the sentence is a clause:

I was surprised that so much had changed so quickly.

(BETTER THAN: That so much had changed so quickly surprised me.)

(The preposition by is omitted with the passive here, because a that-clause cannot be complement of a preposition – see 655.)

Position of direct object

  431   In normal order, a direct object precedes an object complement or a final position adverbial (see 488). But if the object is long, it can be postponed to the end for end-weight:

NORMAL ORDER: We have proved them wrong.

FINAL OBJECT: We have proved wrong the forecasts made by the country’s leading economic experts.

NORMAL ORDER: He condemned them to death.

FINAL OBJECT: He condemned to death most of the peasants who had taken part in the rebellion.

The same choice can be made when a noun phrase object comes before a particle (e.g. the second part of a phrasal verb such as make up, give away, let down):

Images

The choice may be made either for end-weight, or, as in these examples, for end-focus which falls either on the phrasal verb (gave … away, made … up) or on the object. Notice that personal pronoun objects cannot be moved to the end in this way: He gave them away (BUT NOT* He gave away them) (see 631).

Position of indirect object

  432   In a similar way, an indirect object can in effect be postponed, by converting it into a prepositional phrase (see 608, 730):

image

This change, like the others, can be used for a different end-focus. For example, [7] answers the implied question ‘What did the twins tell their mother?’ but [8] answers the implied question ‘Who did they tell their secrets to?’

Avoiding intransitive verbs

  433   Connected with the principle of end-weight in English is the feeling that the predicate of a clause should be longer or grammatically more complex than the subject. This helps to explain why we tend to avoid predicates consisting of just a single intransitive verb. Instead of saying Mary sang, many would probably prefer to say Mary sang a song, filling the object position with a noun phrase which adds little information but helps to give more weight to the predicate.

  434   For such a purpose English often uses a general verb (such as have, take, give, and do) followed by an abstract noun phrase:

image

The sentences on the left are more idiomatic and natural than those on the right.

In a similar way a transitive verb can be replaced by an indirect object construction with the verb give, etc.:

image

PART THREE

A–Z in English grammar

  435   Part Three of this book, called ‘A–Z in English grammar’, covers all the important areas of English grammatical form and structure, and is arranged alphabetically under topic headings. The arrangement is alphabetical because this part of the grammar is primarily meant to be used for reference, especially as an explanation of grammatical terms and categories referred to in Part Two.

Each entry in ‘A–Z in English Grammar’ has a reference to the most relevant sections of A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (abbreviated CGEL, see preliminary page xi), so that, if required, a more detailed treatment of the topic can be consulted in that book.

Adjective patterns

(see CGEL 16.68–83)

  436   Adjectives can have different types of complement, such as

•  a prepositional phrase: I feel very sorry for Ann.

•  a that-clause: Everybody’s pleased that she is making such good progress.

•  a to-infinitive: I’m glad to hear she is recovering.

Adjectives with a prepositional phrase: Ready for lunch?

  437   Adjectives are followed by different prepositions. As a dictionary will tell you, a particular adjective usually requires a particular preposition: curious about, good at, ready for, interested in, afraid of, keen on, close to, content with, etc. Adjectives with prepositions are often -ed adjectives, i.e. participial adjectives like worried (about), interested (in). Here are some examples:

Planners are worried about the noise and dirt in our environment.

I may have sounded a bit annoyed at her for turning up late.

Would you be interested in writing an article for our magazine?

The reader must be convinced of what is happening at one time, and not surprised at sudden changes of character and place.

I was increasingly conscious of being watched.

Anna was uncertain of what the words meant.

Industry is independent of natural conditions, while agriculture is continually dependent on the fluctuations of nature.

This film is based on a best-selling novel.

Adjectives with a that-clause: I’m not sure (that) I understand.

  438   Adjectives which take a that-clause as complement may have personal subjects or introductory it as subject.

Adjectives with personal subjects

That is often omitted (called ‘zero that’). Here are two sets of adjectives which have that-clauses as complement:

•  ‘Certainty adjectives’ such as certain, confident, convinced, positive, sure

We are confident (that) Fran will have a brilliant career.

Everybody’s sure (that) she can do it.

•  ‘Affective adjectives’ such as afraid, alarmed, annoyed, astonished, disappointed, glad, hopeful, pleased, shocked, surprised

Bill was disappointed (that) Betty hadn’t phoned.

I’m glad (that) you were able to cheer them up a bit.

Such adjectives can also have a prepositional phrase as complement (see 437): confident about, sure of, disappointed with, glad of, etc. But note that, in English, a preposition cannot introduce a that-clause. Compare:

They were pleased at the good news.

BUT: They were pleased that the news was good. (NOT *pleased at that the news …)

When the that-clause expresses something as an ‘idea’ rather than as a ‘fact’ (expressing joy, surprise, etc.), it contains should (see ‘putative should’ 280–1):

We were amazed that the cost should be so high.

Adjectives with introductory it as subject or object

Adjectives with that-clauses frequently have introductory it as subject or object (see 542):

It’s possible that we’ll all be a bit late.

Is it true that Liz never turned up?

We find it odd that this city has no university.

Other adjectives with it-constructions and that-clauses are, for example certain, curious, evident, extraordinary, fortunate, important, likely, obvious, probable, sad. Many are -ing adjectives, i.e. they have the form of an -ing participle: disconcerting, embarrassing, fitting, frightening, irritating, shocking, surprising.

When the that-clause expresses something as an ‘idea’ rather than as a ‘fact’ (expressing joy, surprise, etc.) the that-clause often contains ‘putative should’ (see 280–1):

The school board considered it essential that the opinions of teachers should be ascertained.

Instead of should + verb the that-clause can have the alternative constructions with the verb in the subjunctive, i.e. just the base form. This is more common in <AmE> than in <BrE> (see 706):

The school board considered it essential that the opinions of teachers be ascertained.

Adjectives with a to-infinitive: It’s good to have you back.

  439   There are different types of adjectives which have a construction with to-infinitive, for example:

Sue is wrong to say a thing like that.

[1]

Such people are hard to find nowadays.

[2]

‘I’m delighted to be here’, the speaker said.

[3]

Many dealers were quick to purchase the new shares.

[4]

The meanings of the four constructions are different, as can be seen from these paraphrases:

It’s wrong of Sue to say a thing like that.

[1a]

It’s hard to find such people nowadays.

[2a]

‘It makes me delighted to be here’, the speaker said.

[3a]

Many dealers quickly purchased the new shares.

[4a]

Type [1] Other adjectives like wrong in [1] are clever, cruel, good, kind, naughty, nice, rude, silly, splendid, stupid:

He was silly to go ahead with the plan.

Note the position of not and never before the to-infinitive:

He was silly not to follow your advice.

They were stupid never to take the opportunity offered.

Type [2] Other examples of adjectives like hard in [2] are:

The extent of this tendency is difficult to assess.

All this is very easy to arrange.

Your question is of course impossible to answer.

Similarly: convenient, enjoyable, fun <informal>, good, pleasant. The construction with introductory it [2a] is the more common and sometimes the only possible alternative:

It’s difficult to assess the extent of this tendency.

It was really good to see you before Christmas.

It is important to create a new image of the Church.

It’s almost impossible to say this in English.

It would be nice to have a portable TV at the end of one’s bed.

It is now possible to make considerable progress in the negotiations.

It is necessary to distinguish between English and Scots law.

The infinitive clause can have a subject introduced by for:

It is necessary for you to distinguish between English and Scots law.

Type [3] Here are more examples of adjectives like delighted in [3]:

She’ll be furious to see him behave that way.

I’m glad to see you looking so well.

If interviewed I should be pleased to provide further references.

I’m very sorry to learn that Hattie has been ill.

I’m rather surprised to learn that you have sold your stocks.

Other adjectives with this construction, all of which express some kind of emotion, are amazed, angry, annoyed, disappointed, worried.

Type [4] Other examples of adjectives like quick in [4]:

Nick is willing to do the hard work. (‘Nick does it willingly’)

The management was careful to avoid all mention of the problem. (‘carefully avoided’)

The police were prompt to act. (‘acted promptly’)

The entertainment industry has been slow to catch on. (‘has caught on slowly’)

There are also other adjectives which take an infinitive-construction but do not fit into the four types described:

We might be able to afford a new car.

I’ve been unable to contact him during the past week or so.

Ann is now very anxious to return to her university.

There are bound to be economic differences between distant parts of the country.

Our boss is always ready to listen to the views of others.

Adjectives

(see CGEL 7.1–22, 31–44)

  440   Here are four features of adjectives:

•  Most adjectives can have two uses: attributive and predicative. An attributive adjective occurs before the noun it modifies:

This is a difficult problem.

A predicative adjective occurs as the complement of a linking verb. Linking verbs (also called copular verbs, see 719) are be, seem, etc.:

This problem is difficult.

•  Most adjectives can be modified by degree adverbs like very, quite, rather, etc. (see 217):

I’m on quite good terms with him.

•  Most adjectives can have comparative and superlative forms (see 500):

We have a bigger problem than inflation – our biggest problem now is high unemployment.

This must be one of the most beautiful buildings in Europe.

•  Many adjectives are derived from nouns and can be recognized by their endings, e.g. -ous (fame ∼ famous), -ic (base ∼ basic), -y (sleep ∼ sleepy), -ful (beauty ∼ beautiful).

Attributive-only adjectives: She’s our chief financial adviser.

  441   Most adjectives can be both attributive and predicative, but some adjectives can only be used in attributive position, for example:

She was the former prime minister.

The adjective former can be related to the adverb formerly:

She was formerly the prime minister.

Here are some more such adjectives, where each example with an attributive-only meaning is followed by an example of its corresponding adverb:

Many changes occurred in Asia in the late 1990s.

∼ I’ve not heard much from her lately.

They went to an occasional play.

Occasionally they went to see a play.

He was a popular colleague and a hard worker.

∼ He worked hard. [NB same form of the adjective and adverb hard]

Some attributive-only adjectives are derived from nouns, for example:

A new criminal justice bill will soon come before Parliament. (crime ∼ criminal: ‘a bill concerned with the punishment of crimes’)

He thought atomic weapons had deadened the finest feeling that had sustained mankind for ages. (atom ∼ atomic)

There will be no need for a medical examination. (medicine ∼ medical)

The predicative use of adjectives: I feel sick.

  442   •  Adjectives can be used predicatively as subject complement after linking verbs like be, seem, look, feel (see 491, 719):

[A]: I feel sick.

[B]: Yes, you do look awful.

•  Adjectives can also be used predicatively as object complement after verbs like consider, believe, find (see 733):

It makes me sick to see how people spoil the environment.

•  Adjectives can be complement to a subject which is a finite clause (see 492):

Whether the minister will resign is still uncertain.

But the construction with introductory it gives end-weight (see 408) and is the more common:

It is still uncertain whether the minister will resign.

•  Adjectives can also be complement to a non-finite clause (see 493):

Driving a bus isn’t so easy as you may think.

•  Although most adjectives can be used both attributively and predicatively (see 440), some groups of adjectives are predicative-only. One such group is ‘health adjectives’ like faint, ill, and well:

Oh doctor, I feel faint.

Several people are critically ill after the accident.

He doesn’t look well, does he Anna?

When faint is not a health adjective but means ‘slight’ it can be attributive:

Katie bears a faint resemblance to my sister.

•  Some predicative-only adjectives, including afraid, fond, present, ready, are often followed by clauses:

I’m afraid I don’t really agree with that, Bill.

or prepositional phrases (see 437):

I’m very fond of Hemingway.

I hope you are ready for some hard work. (‘I hope you are prepared for some hard work.’)

All the persons who were present at the meeting were in favour of the proposal. (‘All the persons who attended the meeting …’)

Some such adjectives can also precede a noun, but with different meanings: fond memories are ‘sweet memories’, a ready answer is ‘an answer which was given readily’, the present situation means ‘the situation at the present time’.

Adjectives after the head:all the problems involved

  443   •  An adjective which modifies a noun is usually placed before its head (see 596). This is the attributive position: the difficult problems. But some adjectives, especially predicative-only adjectives (see 442), are placed immediately after the head they modify: the problems involved:

This is one of the problems involved in the scheme.

∼ This is one of the problems that are involved in the scheme.

Such adjectives can usually regarded as reduced relative clauses (see 686):

All the persons present at the meeting were in favour of the proposal.

∼ All the persons who were present at the meeting were in favour of the proposal.

The two adjectives involved and present cannot be attributive with the same meaning: we cannot say the present persons or the involved problems in these sentences.

•  Quantifiers (amount words) ending in -body, -one, -thing, -where can only have modifying adjectives placed after them:

How long does it take to train somebody new on the job? (‘How long does it take to train somebody who is new on the job?’)

The chairman’s remark astonished everyone present.

Is there anything interesting in the papers today?

Think of somewhere nice to go for the next weekend!

•  There are adjective phrases consisting of an adjective plus an infinitive, as in

These dogs are easy to teach.

Such phrases cannot come before a noun as head. We can not say

*The easiest to teach dogs are Labrador retrievers.

But the adjective + infinitive phrase can be placed after its noun head:

The dogs easiest to teach are Labrador retrievers.

The corresponding construction with a relative clause is more common in <informal> English:

∼ The dogs that are easiest to teach are Labrador retrievers.

The construction with the adjective placed after its head is also used for other types of complement, such as than-clauses:

Our neighbours have a house much larger than ours.

But it is more usual to separate the adjective and its complement:

The easiest dogs to teach are Labrador retrievers.

Our neighbours have a much larger house than ours.

Adjectives and participles: Emma’s attitude is rather surprising.

  444   There are many adjectives that have the same form as -ing or -ed participles (see 574):

Emma’s attitude is rather surprising.

The professor had been retired for several years.

These adjectives can also be attributive:

We were struck by Emma’s rather surprising attitude.

The retired professor seemed to spend most of his time on his yacht.

A verb corresponding to the adjective may have a different meaning. Compare these two uses:

Relieved used as an adjective:

We are very relieved to know that you are all right. (‘glad, pleased’)

Relieved used as the past participle of the verb relieve:

Our anxiety was relieved by the good news. (‘eased, lessened’)

The different functions of a form used as adjective and as participle are not always obvious.

•  It is clear that an -ing form is a present participle (and not an adjective) when a direct object is present:

The teacher was entertaining students at her home together with other friends.

But entertaining is an adjective in:

The teacher was brilliantly entertaining in her lecture.

•  For both -ed and -ing forms, modification by the adverb very indicates that the forms are adjectives:

The poor attendance at the meeting is not very encouraging.

His remarks made me very annoyed.

When used as a verb, annoyed is modified by very much:

His remarks annoyed me very much.

Adjective or adverb?

(see CGEL 7.6–11, 7.71–3)

  445   Most adverbs in English are derived from adjectives by the addition of -ly: quick ∼ quickly, careful ∼ carefully, etc. (see 464). But there are some adverbs which do not end in -ly, for example direct, fast, hard, high, late, long, straight, wrong. These words can be used both as adjectives and adverbs. In the following pairs, the first is an example of the word used as an adjective, and the second is an example of the word used as an adverb:

I think she has a direct line.

∼ Why don’t you call her direct?

Bill is a fast driver.

∼ Don’t drive too fast.

Alice is a hard worker.

∼ Alice works hard at preparing new teaching materials.

That wall is too high to climb.

∼ Don’t aim too high.

We met in late August.

∼ The modern industrial city developed relatively late.

What I really need now is a long rest.

∼ You mustn’t stay too long.

It was a long straight road.

∼ The best thing would be to go straight back to Stockholm.

I may have said the wrong thing once too often.

∼ There’s always the chance of something going wrong.

These adverbs are mostly connected with time, position and direction. In some cases, there is also an adverb in -ly (directly, hardly, lately, shortly), but with a different meaning:

Don’t hesitate to get in touch with us directly (‘immediately’).

We’ve had hardly any replies to our advertisement. (hardly any = ‘almost no’)

I haven’t seen him lately (‘recently’).

We’ll be in touch with you again shortly. (‘soon’)

There is a meaning difference between strong as an adjective and strongly as an adverb in:

Ben felt strong enough to win the contest. (strong = ‘fit, powerful’)

Ben felt strongly enough about the suggestion to object. (strongly = ‘firmly’)

Early can be used both as adjective and adverb:

The early bird catches the worm.

∼ I hate having to get up too early.

The population explosion occurred in the early part of the nineteenth century.

∼ I’ll see you after you return early in February.

Some words ending in -ly can be used only as adjectives:

That’s a lovely present!

That was an ugly incident.

Adjectives as complements: It tastes good.

  446   An adjective is used after verbs like taste and smell. Here we consider the adjective to be a complement (see 508), not an adverbial:

The food tasted good. (‘The food was good to taste.’)

I thought the dish smelled absolutely revolting.

Well is the adverb corresponding to the adjective good:

Grace is a good writer. ∼ Grace writes well.

But well can also be used as an adjective. In these examples both good and well are adjectives (but with different meanings):

Those cakes look good. (‘Those cakes look as if they taste good.’)

Your mother looks well. (‘Your mother seems to be in good health.’)

Do you drive slow or slowly?

  447   Compare these expressions:

a rapid car ∼ drive rapidly [BUT NOT *drive rapid]

[1]

a slow car ∼ drive slowly OR drive slow

[2]

[1] represents the normal case where there is regular variation between form and function of the adjective (rapid) and adverb (rapidly). In [2] slow can function both as adjective and adverb. Here is another example:

You can buy these things very cheap/cheaply now when the sale is on.

There is no difference in meaning between drive slow and drive slowly or buy cheap and buy cheaply, but the adjective form tends to be more <informal>:

Why do you have to drive so slow when there’s no speed limit here?

The days passed and slowly the spring came. <rather elevated>

The form without -ly is especially common in comparative and superlative constructions. Again, the adverb form is the more <formal>:

We have to look closer/more closely at these problems.

Let’s see who can run quickest/most quickly.

In their base form (i.e. when they are not comparative or superlative) these words would normally end in -ly: look closely, run quickly.

In <AmE conversation> real and good are commonly used as adverbs in expressions like Ann’s playing real good today, corresponding to usual <BrE> Ann’s playing really well today.

Adjectives as heads

(see CGEL 7.23–26)

  448   The typical function of adjectives is to modify the head of a noun phrase: the rich people, a supernatural phenomenon. But some adjectives can themselves be heads of noun phrases: the rich, the supernatural. There are two kinds of such adjectives, both with generic reference (see 90):

•  Adjectives denoting a class of people (plural), for example the rich = ‘those who are rich’:

We must care for the elderly, the unemployed, the homeless, the sick and the poor, the weak and the vulnerable.

Many people prefer the term the physically challenged to the disabled or the handicapped.

The young and the old don’t always understand each other.

•  Adjectives denoting an abstract quality (singular), for example the supernatural = ‘that which is supernatural’:

Do you believe in the supernatural?

Adverbials

(see CGEL Chapter 8)

  449   Adverbials often tell us something extra about an action, happening or state as described by the rest of the sentence, for example:

•  the time when it happened (time adverbial):

We got together late in the evening.

•  the place where it happened (place adverbial):

Will you be staying in a hotel?

•  the manner in which it happened (manner adverbial):

We have to study this plan very carefully.

There are of course many other meanings of adverbials. The meanings of adverbials are dealt with in Part Two (see 151–206). Here we will discuss the different forms and positions that adverbials can have in sentences.

The forms of adverbials

  450   The position that adverbials can occupy depends very much on their form, and they have a number of different forms. Adverbials can be

•  adverbs or adverb phrases (see 464):

A friend of mine has very kindly offered to baby-sit.

•  prepositional phrases (see 654):

I found several people waiting outside the doctor’s door.

•  noun phrases (see 595):

What are you doing this afternoon?

•  clauses with a finite verb (see 492):

We have to preserve these buildings before it’s too late.

•  infinitive clauses (see 493):

As usual, Sarah was playing to win.

•  -ing participle clauses (see 493):

Mrs Cole filled her teacup, adding a touch of skimmed milk.

•  -ed participle clauses (see 493):

Two people were found dead, presumably killed by cars.

•  verbless clauses (see 494):

The actor admitted to driving while under the influence of drink.

The positions of adverbials: front, mid or end?

  451   Most adverbials are mobile, so that they can occur in different places in the sentence. We distinguish three main positions:

•  Front-position is before the subject:

Fortunately I had plenty of food with me.

•  Mid-position is immediately before the main verb, if no auxiliaries are present (the verb phrase printed in bold):

His wife never protests and she always agrees with him.

If there is an auxiliary verb present, the adverbial is placed after the auxiliary:

You’ll never be lonely because we will often come along and pay visits.

If there is more than one auxiliary verb present, the adverbial is placed after the first auxiliary (called the operator, see 609):

This is an idea which has never been tried.

This is an idea which may never have been tried.

Occasionally a mid-position adverbial comes before the operator (see 261, 610). This may, for example, happen when the operator (including the linking verb be) is stressed for the purpose of contrast:

It never was my intention to make things difficult for you.

•  End-position is after the verb, if there is no object or complement present:

I’d like to leave as soon as possible.

An adverbial in end-position comes after an object or complement:

Please don’t call me before nine o’clock.

The place of an adverbial depends partly on its form (whether it is an adverb, a prepositional phrase, a clause, etc.), partly on its meaning (whether it denotes time, place, manner, degree, etc.). End-focus and end-weight also play a part (see 408).

Long and short adverbials

  452   Long adverbials normally occur in end-position.

Clair’s going to Chicago on Monday next week.

There will be delegations from several countries at the opening meeting of the conference in Rio de Janeiro later this year.

He was a complete failure as far as mathematics is concerned.

Long adverbials rarely occur in mid-position. Mid-position is usually restricted to short adverbs like almost, hardly, just, never:

Our chairman just resigned.

Front-position gives contrast, or provides the background or setting for the clause which follows:

As far as mathematics is concerned, he was a complete failure.

Outside the window a low and cold bank of cloud hung over the streets of our little town.

Last year there were riots. Now we have strikes and demonstrations.

Adverbials denoting manner, means, and instrument:

Did you come by bus?

  453   Adverbials which denote manner, means, and instrument (see further 194–7) usually have end-position:

Will you be coming by car?

He threatened the shop owner with a big knife.

The conference opened formally today.

In the passive, however, mid-position is common:

The conference was formally opened by the Secretary-General.

In an active sentence like this one, well can only have end-position:

The Secretary-General put the point well.

But in the corresponding passive sentence we can have either end- or mid-position:

∼ The point was put well.

∼ The point was well put.

Place adverbials: See you at the gym.

  454   Place adverbials (see further 170–92) usually have end-position:

Today’s meeting will be in room 205.

He showered, shaved, dressed and went down to the breakfast room.

Hans Christian Andersen, the master of the fairy tale, was born in Denmark in the town of Odense.

Two place adverbials can occur together in end-position, usually with the smaller location before the larger one:

Many people eat [in Japanese restaurants] [in the United States].

Only the larger locational unit can be moved to front-position:

In the United States many people eat in Japanese restaurants.

Time adverbials: I haven’t seen Anna for a long time.

  455   There are three types of time adverbials (for a more detailed dicsussion see 151–69):

•  adverbials denoting time-when (see 456, 151–9):

I’ll send you an e-mail when I get the results.

•  adverbials denoting duration (see 457, 161–5):

I haven’t seen Anna for a long time. adverbials denoting frequency (see 458, 166–9):

This week I’ll be in the office every day.

Time-when adverbials: See you tomorrow.

  456   Adverbials which denote a point of time or a period of time normally have end-position:

I hope to see you tomorrow.

My father retired last year.

The rail strike lasted for a whole week.

Adverbials such as once and recently, which denote a point of time, but also imply the point from which that time is measured, occur either in front-, mid- or end-position:

Once you said you’d like to be a vet.

You once said you’d like to be a vet.

You said once you’d like to be a vet.

In end-position these adverbs often have a rising-tone nucleus (see 406):

image

Time duration adverbials: Don’t stay too long!

  457   Time duration adverbials normally have end-position:

I’ll be in California for the summer.

The security guards were on duty all night long.

I’ve been staying here since last Saturday.

But single-word adverbs usually take mid-position:

Jessica Smith has temporarily taken over the art column of the newspaper.

Time frequency adverbials: I jog every morning.

  458   Time frequency adverbials denoting definite frequency usually have end-position:

Your salary will be paid monthly.

Our office gets about a hundred requests every day.

About this question we have to think twice.

Time frequency adverbs denoting indefinite frequency typically have mid-position (but see 610 on contrastive function). Such adverbs are, for example, always, nearly always, ever, frequently, generally, never, normally, occasionally, often, rarely, regularly, seldom, sometimes, usually:

You are always assured of a warm and friendly welcome here.

Daniel generally leaves home at seven in the morning.

We don’t normally go to bed before midnight.

Mr Lake was occasionally carried away by his own enthusiasm.

Important decisions can rarely be based on complete unanimity.

At night the temperature regularly drops to minus five degrees Celsius.

Women usually live longer than men.

But prepositional phrases denoting indefinite frequency have front- or end-position:

As a rule it’s very quiet here during the day.

∼ It’s very quiet here during the day, as a rule.

On several occasions we’ve had reason to complain.

∼ We’ve had reason to complain on several occasions.

Degree adverbials: I fully agree with you.

  459   Degree adverbials like definitely, entirely, really, thoroughly, very much have a heightening effect on some part of the sentence (see further 215–23). Degree adverbs often occur in mid-position:

Abigail and I are definitely going to join the salsa club next year.

I entirely agree with your diagnosis.

I don’t think this really affects the situation at all.

Your frustration is thoroughly justified.

We’d very much appreciate some further information.

There are also degree adverbs like hardly, nearly, rather and scarcely which have a lowering effect. They also have mid-position:

We can hardly expect people to take this election seriously.

Your friends nearly missed you at the airport.

I rather doubt I’ll be back before nine tonight.

Jim felt Zoe was scarcely listening to what he was saying.

For emphasis, degree adverbs can occur before the operator:

I really don’t know where we would be without you.

I simply can’t speak too highly of our English teacher.

For some degree adverbials end-position is also possible:

Fortunately, our relationship did not cease entirely.

Two or more adverbials: See you in class tomorrow.

  460   Time adverbials in end-position tend to occur in the order duration + frequency + time-when. In the following examples the different adverbials are indicated by square brackets:

Our electricity was cut off [briefly] [today].

I’m paying my rent [monthly] [this year].

I used to swim [for an hour or so] [every day] [when I was younger].

When more than one of the main classes of adverbials occur in end-position, the normal order is manner/means/instrument + place + time:

We go [to bed] [very early].

I have to rush to get [into the supermarket] [before they close].

Place adverbials tend to follow verbs of movement immediately and can therefore come before manner adverbials:

Anna put the crystal vase [on the table] [with the utmost care].

An adverbial clause normally comes after other adverbial structures (adverbs, prepositional phrases, etc.):

We plan to stop [for a few days] [wherever we can find reasonable accommodation].

A sentence like this one with a string of end-placed prepositional phrases is ‘heavy’:

The mayor was working [on her speech] [in the office] [the whole morning].

Some adverbials which normally have end-position can be put in front-position to avoid having too many adverbials at the end of a sentence:

[The whole morning], the mayor was working [on her speech] [in the office].

It is not usual for more than one adverbial to be in front-position or mid-position, but there are exceptions. For example, to introduce a new topic in a conversation we might find sentences like this one:

image

Sentence adverbials: Frankly, this isn’t good enough.

  461   The adverbials we have discussed so far are integrated to some extent in the structure of the sentence. For example, they can modify the verb:

Alex always drives carefully.

and they can be affected by negation:

Alex doesn’t always drive carefully.

Here both always and carefully are in the scope of the negative (see 261).

  462   There is also another type of adverbials, sentence adverbials, which are not integrated but are peripheral to the sentence structure. The difference between the integrated and peripheral types becomes clear with adverbs that can have both functions:

image

  463   Sentence adverbials have a wide range of possible structures (see further 308, 352–9). For example, instead of the adverb frankly in this sentence

Frankly, this isn’t good enough.

we could use infinitive clauses like to be frank, to put it frankly, -ing participle clauses like frankly speaking, or finite verb clauses like if I may be frank.

Sentence adverbials often convey speakers’ comments on the content of what they are saying:

Certainly Nicole’s German is very fluent.

The document should be signed, hopefully by December.

Of course, nobody imagines that Mr Brown will ever repay the loan.

Strangely enough, Harry’s face reminds me vividly of Eleanor Peters.

To be sure, we’ve heard many such promises before.

Surely no other novelist can give such a vivid description.

Unfortunately that is an oversimplification of the problem.

Other sentence adverbials with this function are, for example, actually, admittedly, definitely, fortunately, in fact, indeed, luckily, obviously, officially, possibly, preferably, really, superficially, surprisingly, technically, theoretically.

Sentence adverbials like however, therefore, moreover, have a connective role:

The hockey team didn’t like the food. However, they have not complained.

The usual place for most sentence adverbials is front-position. They are often separated from what follows by a tone unit boundary in speech, or a comma in writing:

image

Adverbs

(see CGEL 7.46–70)

  464   Most adverbs are formed from adjectives with the suffix -ly: frank/frankly, happy/happily, etc. (For the change in spelling from y to i in happy/happily, etc., see 701.)

Adverbs have two typical functions: as adverbial in sentences and as modifier of adjectives, adverbs and other phrases.

•  Adverb as adverbial (see 449):

The conference was carefully planned.

•  Adverb as modifier of adjectives (see 465):

Louise is an extremely talented young woman.

•  Adverb as modifier of other adverbs (see 465):

One has to read this document very closely between the lines.

•  Adverb as modifier of prepositions, etc. (see 466):

We live just outside of Chicago.

Adverbs as modifiers of adjectives and other adverbs:

That’s a very good idea!

  465   Most modifying adverbs are degree adverbs like absolutely, extremely, rather (see 215, 459).

•  When an adverb modifies an adjective, the adverb regularly precedes the adjective:

I thought it was an absolutely awful show myself. <familiar>

George said everybody was deeply affected.

It’s extremely good of you to do this for me.

Rachel’s rather tall for her age, isn’t she?

But enough is placed after its adjective:

No, this just isn’t good enough!

We were naive enough to be taken in.

When too and how modify an adjective in a noun phrase, the indefinite article is placed after the adjective. Compare these two sentences:

Charlotte’s a good accountant and never makes any mistakes.

BUT: Charlotte’s too good an accountant to make any mistakes.

How strange a feeling it was, seeing my old school again! <elevated>

•  An adverb which modifies another adverb is placed before the adverb:

Melissa did rather well in her exams.

However, enough is an exception, and is placed after the adverb:

Oddly enough, nothing valuable was stolen.

Adverbs as modifiers of prepositions, etc.: I’m dead against it.

  466   An adverb can also modify

•  a preposition: Emily’s parents are dead against her hitch-hiking. <familiar>

•  a determiner (see 522): The Johnsons seem to have hardly any books at home.

•  a numeral (see 602): Over two hundred deaths were reported after the disaster.

•  a pronoun (see 661): Nearly everybody seemed to be at the party.

The modifier else: What else can we do?

  467   Else can modify

•  the quantifiers much and little and is placed after these headwords:

The Nelsons seem to do little else but watch TV in the evening.

•  the adverbs ending in -where:

Hey Bill, let’s go somewhere else!

•  the interrogatives who, what, how and where:

What else can we do?

•  the pronouns ending in -body, -one, -thing:

Why don’t you ask somebody else?

However, with determiners like some, other is used instead of else. These two sentences have the same meaning:

Someone else will have to take my place.

∼ Some other person will have to take my place.

Adverbs as modifiers of nouns or noun phrases: What a fool he is!

  468   The degree words quite, rather, such, and what (in exclamations) can modify noun phrases:

My grandmother used to tell me such funny stories.

The noun phrase is normally indefinite, and the degree word precedes the indefinite article (see 524):

She told me such a funny story.

The place was in rather a mess. <informal>

What a fool he is!

Some adverbs of place (e.g. home) or time (e.g. before, ahead) can modify nouns. The adverb is placed after the noun (see 648):

Our journey home was pretty awful.

The weather was fine the day before.

We always try to plan several years ahead.

In some phrases the adverb can stand both before and after the noun:

an upstairs window ∼ a window upstairs

the above table ∼ the table above (BUT ONLY: the table below, NOT *the below table)

Adverbs as complements of prepositions:

I don’t know anybody around here.

  469   Some adverbs of place (such as here, home, downstairs) and time (such as today, later, yesterday) act as complements of prepositions (printed in bold):

I don’t know anybody around here. <informal>

Are we far from home?

Ben shouted at me from downstairs.

After today, there will be no more concerts until October.

I’m saving the chocolates you gave me for later.

I haven’t eaten since yesterday.

Here are more examples of the preposition from + adverb combinations: from above, from abroad, from below, from inside, from outside. Several prepositions can form combinations with the place adverbs here and there, for example:

from here, from there

in here, in there

near here, near there

over here, over there

through here, through there

up here, up there

Apposition

(see CGEL 17.65–93)

  470   Two or more noun phrases which occur next to each other and refer to the same person or thing are said to be in apposition:

A famous author, Ted Johnson, is coming here next week.

The noun phrases in apposition can also occur in a different order:

Ted Johnson, a famous author, is coming here next week.

In the last sentence we can regard the second noun phrase as a reduced non-restrictive relative clause (see 693):

Ted Johnson, (who is) a famous author, is coming here next week.

The meaning relation expressed by apposition is the same as that expressed by a subject and its complement:

Ted Johnson is a famous author.

Restrictive and non-restrictive apposition: spokeswoman Ann Guthrie

  471   Just like relative clauses (see 692) apposition can be restrictive or non-restrictive.

•  Non-restrictive apposition:

image

Here the electrician does not restrict or limit the meaning of Mr Smith. The noun phrases in non-restrictive apposition are here separated by a comma <in writing>, or by separate tone units <in speech>, as in non-restrictive relative clauses (see 398).

•  Restrictive apposition:

image

Here the architect and the electrician restrict and narrow down the meaning of Mr Smith.

Restrictive apposition is common, especially when the first element defines the meaning of the second element:

the famous writer Ted Johnson

the novel Moby Dick

my good friend Barbara

Sometimes the determiner is omitted <esp. written AmE>:

writer Ted Johnson

hospital spokeswoman Ann Guthrie

Here, the first noun phrase is almost like a title (as in President Lincoln, Professor Crystal, see 668).

Explicit apposition: some poets, chiefly Shelley and Wordsworth

  472   Sometimes the appositional relation of the noun phrases is made explicit by an adverbial such as especially and chiefly:

Alice and Oliver had travelled in many countries, especially those in South-East Asia.

Natalie Evans has written about the English romantics, chiefly Shelley and Wordsworth.

Other expressions of explicit apposition are for example, for instance, particularly, in particular, notably, mainly (for appositive clauses, see 646).

Articles

(see CGEL 5.10–11. 5.26–72)

  473   There are two articles in English, the definite article the (the book) and the indefinite article a (a book) or an (an eye). Sometimes nouns require no article at all. This is called the ‘zero article’ (books, eyes). The articles are a subclass of the determiners (see 522).

It is the initial sound of the word following the article that determines how the indefinite article is spelled, and also how the definite and indefinite articles are pronounced.

•  The unstressed definite article is always written the, but is pronounced Image before consonants and Image before vowels: Image the car, the pilot BUT Image the egg, the idea.

•  The indefinite article is a /ə/ before consonants and an /ən/ before vowels: a /ə/ a car, a pilot BUT /ən/ an egg, an idea.

It is the pronunciation, not the spelling, of the following word that determines the choice of the indefinite article:

a UNImage spokesperson [BUT an EU /ən Image spokesperson]

an X-ray /ən 'eksreI/

an hour, an heir [both nouns beginning with silent h]

The articles are normally unstressed, but may be stressed for special emphasis. The stressed forms of the indefinite article are a /eI/ and an /æn/. The stressed form of the definite article is the Image It is often used to denote excellence or superiority:

The president’s press conference will be the Image event this week.

Article usage: a book, the books, milk

  474   The general rules for the use of the articles are as follows:

•  The definite article is used to express definiteness for all kinds of nouns (except proper nouns, such as Susan, Asia or San Francisco, which do not take an article; see 92).

Singular count nouns:

 

 

the book

the child

the exam

Plural count nouns:

 

 

the books

the children

the exams

Mass nouns:

 

 

the gold

the knowledge

the milk

•  The indefinite article is used to express indefinite meaning of singular count nouns: a book, a child, an exam.

•  Zero article (i.e. no article at all) or unstressed some /səm/ is used to express indefinite meaning of plural count nouns and of mass nouns.

Plural count nouns: (some) books, (some) children, (some) exams

Mass nouns: (some) gold, (some) knowledge, (some) milk

The general rules of meaning for the use of articles with common nouns are discussed in Part Two (see 83). Here we give some information about article usage with common nouns that occur without an article and the use of count nouns as complements. (For proper nouns, see 667.)

Common nouns without article:I felt sleepy after dinner.

  475   Here we list some exceptional groups of common nouns that occur without article. This usage chiefly occurs in idiomatic expressions and certain fixed combinations of words (at night, etc.). For contrast, examples of regular uses of the article are also given (during the night, etc.).

•  Means of transport (in expressions with by)

Did you get here by train or by car? [BUT: We slept in the car.]

Also: by bus, by boat, by bike etc.

•  Times of the day and night

These birds are mostly active at dawn and at dusk.

We arrived rather late at night.

Also: after daybreak, by sunrise, before sunset, at midnight, at twilight, at noon [BUT article after in and during: in the afternoon, in the night, during the night, etc.]

•  Meals

We were given scrambled eggs for breakfast.

Natasha is having lunch with her publisher.

I felt sleepy after dinner.

•  <BrE>, but not <AmE>, usually omits the definite article with university and hospital:

Mrs Anderson has to go to hospital || the hospital for an operation. [BUT ALWAYS: Where is the hospital?]

We were at university || the university together.

•  Other expressions:

Do you go to church regularly? [BUT: We walked towards the church.]

Young people should not be sent to prison. [BUT: We drove past the prison.]

Let’s have lunch in town tomorrow. [BUT: She knows the town well.]

We met at school and began courting in college.

I like going to bed late.

Also: stay in bed, get out of bed, put the children to bed, be ill in bed. [BUT: sit on the bed, lie down on the bed]

•  Parallel phrases

They walked arm in arm.

BUT: He took her by the arm.

We walked hand in hand.

BUT: What have you got in your hand?

They are husband and wife.

BUT: She’s the wife of a famous artist.

We met face to face.

BUT: He punched me right in the face.

Count nouns as complement: She wants to be a doctor.

  476   Unlike many other languages, English requires an article with singular count nouns as complement (e.g. after be and other linking verbs, see 508, 719). With indefinite reference, the indefinite article is used:

Mary always wanted to be a scientist.

With certain verbs, e.g. consider, the complement follows the object or the passive:

Everybody considered Mr Heyman (to be) an excellent music teacher.

Mr Heyman was considered (to be) an excellent music teacher.

With other verbs, e.g. regard, the complement follows as:

Many people regarded her as a goddess.

With definite reference, the definite article is normally used:

Phil Moore was regarded as the best disc jockey in town.

However, the definite article can be omitted when the noun designates a unique role, office or task:

Who’s (the) captain of the team?

We’ve elected Mr Cook (the) chairman of the committee.

In these examples the definite article can be left out because there is only one captain of a team and one chairman of a committee. The definite article can also be omitted with a noun phrase in apposition (see 470):

Mrs Peterson, (the) wife of a leading local businessman, was fined for reckless driving.

Auxiliary verbs

(see CGEL 3.21–51)

  477   Auxiliary verbs are, as their name suggests, ‘helping verbs’. They are a small class of words including primary auxiliaries like be and modal auxiliaries like can and will. Auxiliaries do not make up a verb phrase on their own but help to make up a verb phrase in combination with a main verb (such as work) (see 735):

I’m working all day today.

I can even work at weekends if you need me.

An auxiliary verb can also occur without a main verb, but only where the main verb is omitted because it is supplied by the earlier context (see 384):

I can speak French as well as she can.

In English, auxiliary verbs are required in certain constructions, especially questions and negative clauses (see the do-construction in 611):

[A] Do you want a cup of coffee? [B] No, I don’t think so, thank you.

•  Auxiliary verbs can be placed before not, but main verbs require the do-construction:

I’m not working today. [BUT: I don’t work every day.]

•  Auxiliary verbs can be placed before the subject in questions, but main verbs require the do-construction:

Can I help you? [BUT: Do you want me to help you?]

  478   Some auxiliary verbs have short (contracted) forms, for example: I’m (contracted form) instead of I am (uncontracted form). Contracted forms are common in <spoken> and <informal> English. Contracted forms can be used

•  after pronouns:

I’ll see you tomorrow.

•  after short nouns:

The dog’s getting ready for his walk. The soup’ll get cold.

•  after short adverbs such as here, there, how, and now:

Here’s your key.

How’s everything with you?

Now’s the time to act.

•  after introductory there (see 547):

I think there’s going to be trouble.

In addition to verb contraction, as discussed above, English also has not-contraction: isn’t, can’t, etc. (see 582):

The dog’s not here.∼ The dog isn’t here.

The auxiliary verb do: What do you say to that?

  479   The auxiliary do has the following forms:

 

Positive

Uncontracted negative

Contracted negative

present: 3rd person singular

does

does not

doesn’t

present: not 3rd person singular

do

do not

don’t

past

did

did not

didn’t

Do is also a main verb (‘perform’, etc.):

What have you been doing today?

In addition, do is a substitute verb (see 383), as in:

image

When used as a main verb or a substitute verb, do has the full range of forms, including the present participle doing and the past participle done, as these examples show. (Doing and done are not included in the above table, which shows only the forms of the auxiliary do.)

The auxiliary verb have: Have you seen today’s paper?

  480   Like do, have is both a main verb and an auxiliary. It has the following forms:

Images

As a main verb, have (‘possess’) is sometimes constructed as an auxiliary <esp BrE>:

I haven’t any money. <esp BrE>

But this is increasingly rare. Nowadays both <AmE> and <BrE> prefer the do-construction:

I don’t have any money.

When used as an event verb (see 114) in the sense of ‘take, experience, receive’, the main verb have normally has the do-construction in both <AmE> and <BrE>:

Does your wife have coffee with her breakfast?

Did you have any difficulty getting here?

Did everybody have a good time?

  481   There is also the <informal> have got, which is similar in function to have as a state verb, and where have is constructed as an auxiliary. It is particularly common in negative and interrogative sentences:

They haven’t got a single idea between them!

How many students have you got in your class?

<AmE> has gotten as the past participle, corresponding to <BrE> got in certain senses: ‘acquire, cause, come’:

He had gotten stuck with a job too big for his imagination. <AmE>

<AmE> makes a distinction between We’ve gotten tickets = ‘have acquired’ and We’ve got tickets = ‘possess’.

The auxiliary verb be: What on earth are you doing?

  482   Be has eight different forms (which is more than any other English verb). Be is constructed as an auxiliary also when it functions as a main verb. For example, it has no do-construction (except in commands, see Note [b] below).

Images

Note

[a]

In negative questions aren’t I?, as in I’m right, aren’t I?, is widely used in <BrE>, but it is felt to be somewhat affected in <AmE>. In negative declarative sentences there is no generally acceptable contracted form for am not. Ain’t is a <non-standard> but frequently used construction, esp. in natural <AmE> conversation, as in Things ain’t what they used to be. As well as serving as a contracted are not, ain’t is used also for am not, is not (Ain’t it the truth?), has not and have not (You ain’t seen nothing yet). All these examples are taken from <very informal> AmE.

[b]

The main verb be may have the do-construction in persuasive imperative sentences. Do be quiet! is more persuasive or emphatic than Be quiet! The do-construction is also required with negative imperatives (see 497): Don’t be awkward!

The modal auxiliaries: Can I use your phone?

  483   The modal auxiliaries do not have -s forms, -ing forms, or -ed participles. Can, may, shall, will have the special past forms could, might, should, would. The other modal auxiliaries (must, dare, need, ought to, used to) do not have such forms.

Positive

Uncontracted negative

Contracted negative

can

cannot, can not

can’t

could

could not

couldn’t

may

may not

(mayn’t) <rare>

might

might not

mightn’t

shall

shall not

shan’t <rare esp. in AmE>

should

should not

shouldn’t

will, ’ll

will not, ’ll not

won’t

would, ’d

would not, ’d not

wouldn’t

must

must not

mustn’t

ought to

ought not to

oughtn’t to

used to [see Note]

used not to

didn’t use(d) to, usedn’t to

need [see Note]

need not

needn’t

dare [see Note]

dare not

daren’t

[Note] Used to, need, and dare as auxiliaries are rare in all forms (see 484–5).

Here are some examples of modal auxiliaries as used in conversation:

image

image

Dare and need: You needn’t worry about it.

  484   Dare and need can be constructed in two ways:

•  either as main verbs with to-infinitive, -s inflection (dares, needs) and past forms (dared, needed):

It needs to be said that your sister is not to be blamed for what happened.

•  or as modal auxiliaries (with bare infinitive and without the inflected forms dares ∼ dared, needs ∼ needed):

Our country’s prestige need not suffer. There need be no doubt about that.

The modal auxiliary construction is mainly restricted to negative and interrogative sentences, and is rare. The main verb construction can always be used, and is in fact the more common in all varieties:

Our country’s prestige does not need to suffer.

There does not need to be any doubt about that.

Used to: They used not to come here.

  485   As an auxiliary used always takes the to-infinitive and is pronounced Images Used to occurs only in the past tense:

Brandon used to be a racing driver.

My aunt used to come every day and play with to me.

This auxiliary may take the do-construction, in which case the spellings use and used both occur:

Herb didn’t use to smoke. OR: Herb didn’t used to smoke.

In more <formal> style this construction is preferred:

Herb used not to smoke.

The interrogative construction Used he to smoke? is <esp. BrE>. The more <informal> Did he use(d) to smoke? is preferred in both <AmE> and <BrE>. However, a different construction is often a more natural choice, for example: Did he smoke when you first knew him?

Clauses

(see CGEL 10.1–33, 14.5–9)

  486   Sentences are made up of clauses. A sentence may consist of one, or more than one, clause (see 695). There are three ways in which clauses may be described:

•  In terms of the clause elements (subject, verb, etc.) from which they are constructed, and the verb patterns which are formed from these elements (see 487, 718).

•  In terms of finite clauses, non-finite clauses, and verbless clauses (see 492).

•  In terms of clause function, i.e. the function a clause performs in a sentence. We talk about nominal clauses (clauses acting as noun phrases), adverbial clauses (clauses acting as adverbial elements), etc. (see 495).

We shall deal with each of these in turn.

Clause elements: S, V, O, C, A

  487   A clause can be analysed into five different types of clause elements:

S = Subject (see 705)

V = Verb (or rather verb phrase, see 718)

O = Object (see 608)

C = Complement (see 508)

A = Adverbial (see 449)

These clause elements can be shown in a diagram:

Images

  488   Among these types we may distinguish the four main elements of clause structure (subject, verb, complement, object) and one modifying element (adverbial). Adverbials differ from the other clause elements in three important ways:

•  Adverbials are usually optional, i.e. they may be omitted (optional adverbials are given in brackets):

(Suddenly) I felt tired.

I (quickly) shut the door.

•  Adverbials are not restricted in number. A clause can only have one subject, one finite verb, one complement, and one or two objects. But, there may be any number of adverbials. (This is theory, of course: in practice you will rarely find more than three adverbials in one clause.)

SV

Fran woke up.

SV[A]

Fran woke up [in the middle of the night].

[A]SV[A]

[Sometimes] Fran woke up [in the middle of the night].

•  Adverbials are often mobile, i.e. they can occur at different places in the clause (on the positions of adverbials, see 451):

[A]SV[A][A][A]

[Sometimes] I stay [a couple of extra hours] [in the office] [to finish up a job].

[A]S[A]V[A][A]

[To finish up a job] I [sometimes] stay [a couple of extra hours] [in the office].

The basic verb patterns

  489   If we look at the main elements in the clause (S, V, O, C), we can distinguish six basic verb patterns. (We call them ‘verb patterns’ rather than ‘clause patterns’, since it is the verb that determines the type of clause structure. For more details, see 718.)

•  SVC (or sometimes SVA): The first verb pattern occurs with linking verbs: be, appear, look, seem, etc. Linking verbs ‘link together’ the subject and the complement [here in square brackets]:

Luke’s father is [a lawyer].

Both boxers became [famous].

The victory seems [a foregone conclusion].

The guard posts are [along the frontier].

•  SVO: The second verb pattern occurs with verbs that have one object, i.e. transitive verbs:

I like [Hemingway’s style].

•  SVOV: The third verb pattern occurs with verbs that have an object + a verb:

The manager asked [me] [to work overtime].

•  SVOO: The fourth verb pattern occurs with verbs that have two objects (these verbs are called ‘ditransitive verbs’):

I’ll give [you] [the report] on Monday.

•  SVOC: The fifth verb pattern occurs with verbs that have an object and an object complement:

We found [the house] [too expensive].

•  SV: The sixth verb pattern occurs with verbs without object or complement, i.e. intransitive verbs:

The children laughed.

The active-passive relation

  490   There are certain relations between clause elements. One is the relation which makes it possible to change an active clause into a passive clause (see 613). The following verb patterns can occur in the passive (optional agents in round brackets):

Pattern

Active

Passive

SVO

Everybody rejected the idea.

The idea was rejected (by everybody).

SVOV …

The manager asked me to work overtime.

I was asked (by the manager) to work overtime.

SVOO

The ambulance crew gave The casualties were given first aid

the casualties first aid (by the ambulance crew).

SVOC

Boat owners considered the bridge a menace to navigation.

The bridge was considered a menace to navigation (by boat owners).

When an active clause is changed into a passive clause, the object of the active clause is converted into the subject of the passive clause. Therefore only those patterns which contain an object can be converted into the passive. The pattern with two objects

I’ll give you the report on Monday.

has two passive forms:

You’ll be given the report on Monday.

The report will be given (to) you on Monday.

The complements of subjects and objects: Ann is a teacher.

  491   The commonest verb in the pattern with linking verbs (SVC) is be. Since be links together the subject and the complement, we call it a linking verb. There are also other linking verbs, such as the verbs of ‘appearance’ and ‘sensation’ look and feel, and the verbs of ‘becoming’ become and get (see 719):

My mother looks [so tired and worn], and I felt [very worried] when she rang up and said she couldn’t come.

Right from the beginning we became [very attached to each other].

Let’s hope the world will gradually become [a better place in which to live].

The verb pattern SVOC can often be expanded by a to be infinitive or paraphrased by a that-clause (see 724, 727):

We found him most helpful.

∼We found him to be most helpful.

∼We found that he was most helpful.

The object and the complement of the SVOC verb pattern have the same relation of meaning as the subject and complement of an SVC pattern with a linking verb: He was most helpful.

Finite, non-finite, and verbless clauses

  492   Another way of looking at a clause is to see what kind of verb phrase acts as its V element. Here we first distinguish finite clauses and non-finite clauses.

Finite clauses are clauses whose verb element is a finite verb phrase (see 737). In a finite verb phrase there may be just one finite verb:

Ann works terribly hard. (the SIMPLE PRESENT)

Ann worked terribly hard. (the SIMPLE PAST)

If the verb phrase consists of more than one verb, the first verb is finite:

She has worked in the office for six months. (the Present Perfect)

She is working in the office for six months. (the Present Progressive)

Normally, in <written> language, a complete sentence has at least one independent finite verb clause.

  493   Non-finite clauses are clauses whose verb element is a non-finite verb phrase. A non-finite verb phrase consists of non-finite elements such as an -ing participle (see 578), an -ed participle (see 577), or an infinitive (see 575). Most non-finite clauses do not have a subject.

•  -ing clause without a subject:

I used to lie awake at night, worrying about the next exam.

•  -ing clause with a subject:

His remark having been represented as an insult, Mr Anderson was later forced to resign from the committee.

•  -ed clause without a subject:

Covered with confusion, Hannah hurriedly left the room.

•  -ed clause with a subject:

The job finished, we went home straight away.

•  to-infinitive clause without a subject:

The best thing would be to leave straight away.

•  to-infinitive clause with a subject. The subject of an infinitive clause is often introduced by the preposition for:

The best thing would be for us to leave straightaway.

•  bare infinitive clause (i.e. containing an infinitive without to) without a subject. These are much less common than to-infinitive clauses:

All I did was ask him to leave.

•  bare infinitive clause with a subject:

Rather than Joan do it, I’d prefer to do the job myself.

  494   Verbless clauses contain no verb element, and often no subject:

Dozens of tourists were stranded, many of them children.

A sleeping bag under each arm, they tramped off on their vacation.

Verbless clauses are regarded as clauses because they function like finite and non-finite clauses, and because they can be analysed in terms of one or more clause elements. We can usually assume that a form of the verb be or some other verb has been omitted: ‘many of the tourists were children’, ‘they had a sleeping bag under each arm’. The subject, when omitted, can usually be understood as equivalent to the subject of the main clause:

The oranges, when ripe, are picked and sorted. (‘when they are ripe’)

Whether right or wrong, Michael always comes off worst in an argument. (‘whether he is right or wrong’)

An adjective, alone or as head of an adjective phrase, can function as a verbless clause:

Anxious for a quick decision, the chairman called for a vote.

An escort of ten horsemen waited behind the coach, half asleep in their saddles.

The verbless clause is mobile, though it usually precedes or follows the subject of the main clause:

Even if true, this statement would be misleading.

∼This statement, even if true, would be misleading.

An adverb may sometimes replace an adjective functioning as a verbless clause. There is hardly any difference in meaning between these two sentences:

Nervously, the gunman opened the letter.

∼Nervous, the gunman opened the letter.

Clause functions

  495   In terms of function, i.e. what role they have in a sentence, clauses can be divided into main clauses and subclauses (i.e. subordinate clauses; see 709). Subclauses are part of another clause. We can also divide clauses into nominal clauses, adverbial clauses, etc. The various functions of clauses are treated elsewhere:

•  Nominal clauses function as subject, object, complement, prepositional complement, etc. (see 588). Nominal clauses can be that-clauses, interrogative clauses, -ing clauses, and infinitive clauses. In this example the first that-clause functions as subject and the second as object:

[That the customer gave a false name] shows [that he was doing something dishonest.]

•  Relative clauses (see 686), i.e. modifying clauses introduced by wh-pronouns or that (including ‘zero-that’), are usually modifiers of noun phrases. In this sentence the relative clause who live opposite our house modifies the noun phrase head family:

The family [who live opposite our house] are French.

•  Comment clauses (see 499) function as sentence adverbials (see 461), as in this sentence where to be honest equates with the adverb honestly:

[To be honest,] I’m not sure what to do. ∼Honestly, I’m not sure what to do.

•  Comparative clauses (see 505) follow a comparative item such as more or less:

This year bookshops have sold a lot more paperbacks [than they usually do].

•  Adverbial clauses have a large number of different meanings, such as time, as in:

I used to go to the theatre [whenever I had the opportunity].

Adverbial clauses are discussed in Part Two: clauses denoting time (see 151), place (see 170), contrast (see 211), cause or reason (see 198, 204), purpose (see 203), result (see 202), and conditional clauses (see 207).

Cleft sentences

(see CGEL 18.25–30)

  496   A single clause, such as

image

can be divided into two separate parts, each with its own verb:

image

A construction like [1a] is called a cleft sentence (see 419). A sentence like [1] can be changed into different cleft sentences depending on what element is considered the most important in the sentence. This has to do with focus (see 399). In [1a] the subject our neighbours is in focus. In [1b] the object house is in focus:

image

In [1c] the adverbial last year is in focus:

image

The second part of a cleft sentence is very similar to a restrictive relative clause (see 687). The relative pronouns are also used in cleft sentences: e.g. who in [1a] and that in [1b] and [1c].

Besides the it-type cleft sentence, there is also a wh-type cleft sentence (see 420). If we want to place the object car of [1] in focus we can use either the it-type in [1b] or the wh-type in [2b]:

image

Cleft sentences are different from sentences with introductory there (see 547):

There’s a lovely house for sale in our village.

and introductory it (see 542):

It’s too early to go and visit Sue at the hospital.

Commands

(see CGEL 11.24–30)

  497   We distinguish two types: 2nd person commands and 1st and 3rd person commands.

2nd person commands: Behave yourself.

A command is usually a sentence with an imperative verb, i.e. the base form of the verb, without endings for number or tense:

Shut the door.

Commands are apt to sound abrupt unless they are toned down by politeness signals like please (see 332):

Shut the door, please.

Please get ready as soon as you can.

The only auxiliary verb used in commands is do:

Don’t stay too late, Pam.

Don’t be a fool.

The do-construction is used in such not-negated commands. But do can also occur in positive commands. If we want to make a command more emphatic or persuasive, we can say

sit dówn. [Compare: Sit down.]

tell us how you got on at your interview. [Compare: Tell us …]

In positive sentences it is only in commands that do can be followed by be:

be cáreful.

As these examples indicate, commands usually have no expressed subject. When the subject is missing, we can say that there is an implied subject you. This is why we call this type of command ‘2nd person commands’. We can see that there is an implied subject you when there is a reflexive pronoun yourself/yourselves (see 619):

Behàve yourself.

or a tag (see 684):

Image

However, in commands there can sometimes be an expressed subject you:

You just listen to me now.

You go right ahead with your plan.

This expressed you is stressed in commands:

'You 'put that dòwn. [Command] <impolite>

Commands with you can sound particularly <impolite>, as in this example. But you is not stressed in statements:

You 'swim wèll. [Statement]

1st and 3rd person commands: Let’s go and eat.

  498   There are also 1st person and 3rd person commands, but they are not as common as 2nd person commands. A 1st person command begins with let me in the singular, or let’s in the plural (the full form let us is rare):

Let me have a look at your essay.

Let’s go and eat. OR Let’s go eat. <informal AmE>

In negative commands, not follows let’s, but there is also an alternative construction with do-support <esp. BrE>:

Let’s not be late for the game. ∼Don’t let’s be late for the game. <esp. BrE>

A 3rd person command has a 3rd person subject, as in

Somebody get a doctor! <informal>

Commands with let + a 3rd person subject are <formal>, often <elevated> in style:

Let each nation decide its own fate. <formal>

Comment clauses

(see CGEL 15.53–56)

  499   Comment clauses comment on the truth of the sentence, the manner of saying it, or the attitude of the speaker (an emotional reaction or judgment):

The minister’s proposal could, I believe, be a vital contribution towards world peace.

Comment clauses like I believe are only loosely related to the rest of the main clause they belong to, and they function as sentence adverbials (see 462). They are usually marked off from the other clause, in <written> English by commas:

What’s more, we lost all we had.

Stated bluntly, they have no chance of recovery.

In <speech>, comment clauses are often marked off by having a separate tone unit:

image

Comment clauses can occur in front-, mid- or end-position. Here are some other examples of comment clauses in spoken English [– marks a pause]:

image

There are many types of comment clauses, such as I see, I think, I suppose, I’m afraid, as you see, as I said, to be frank, so to say, so to speak, what’s more likely, you see, you know, you bet <familiar>. Some such items are very common as ‘discourse markers’ in <informal speech>, in particular you see, you know, I mean, I think, etc. (see 23).

Comparison

(see Section 225 and CGEL 7.74–90, 15.63–75)

  500   Gradable adjectives and adverbs (see 216) have degrees of comparison: comparative and superlative. Comparison is expressed either by the endings -er and -est or by the words more and most before the adjective or adverb:

 

 

Comparative

Superlative

Adjectives

tall

taller

tallest

 

beautiful

more beautiful

most beautiful

Adverbs

soon

sooner

soonest

 

easily

more easily

most easily

Comparison of adjectives

  501   Comparison with the endings -er and -est is generally used with short adjectives:

•  Usually one-syllable adjectives:

great ∼greater ∼greatest

Occasionally, also one-syllable adjectives occur with more or most:

more true ∼most true, more wrong ∼most wrong

•  Many two-syllable adjectives, especially those ending in -y, -ow, -le and -er:

Images

Two-syllable adjectives such as common, polite, quiet often have either type of comparison:

Images

The endings sometimes involve changes in spelling (see 700, 703) or pronunciation (see 666), for example:

pretty ∼ prettier ∼ prettiest, big ∼ bigger ∼ biggest

•  Long adjectives (awkward, possible, hopeful, useful, etc.), including -ed adjectives (interested, etc.) and -ing adjectives (interesting, etc.) form comparison with more and most:

I find my new work more challenging and more interesting.

This is one of the most beautiful places in the area.

  502   A small group of highly frequent adjectives have irregular comparison:

•  bad ∼ worse ∼ worst:

Yesterday was a bad day for the stock market, but today seems to be the worst day of the week.

•  good ∼ better ∼ best:

There’d be a better chance for our team to win the series with a new coach.

To keep the children happy for the afternoon, the best thing to do was to run a film.

•  far ∼ further ∼ furthest or (less common, except when referring to distances) far ∼ farther ∼ farthest:

The police never got any further with their investigation.

In these examples further is not a comparative, but means ‘additional’:

Any further questions?

We stayed for a further three weeks. (But in <informal> usage usually: for another three weeks.)

Old has the regular forms older ∼ oldest, but elder ∼ eldest are also used to denote family relations (an elder/older sister). Older is always used before a than-construction:

John is nine years older than me.

Comparison of adverbs

  503   Adverbs have the same general rules of comparison as adjectives. Adverbs of two or more syllables formed from adjectives with the -ly ending (quick ∼ quickly) have comparison with more and most:

•  quickly ∼ more quickly ∼ most quickly

The memos have to be circulated more quickly.

As with adjectives, there is a small group of adverbs with irregular comparison:

•  well ∼ better ∼ best

To qualify, you have to do better than this.

The picture in the middle, that’s the one I like best.

•  badly ∼ worse ∼ worst

Financially, we may be worse hit than some of the other universities.

The northern regions were worst affected by the snow.

•  (much) ∼ more ∼ most

You deserve a prize more than anyone.

Chelsea is my most helpful colleague.

•  (little) ∼ less ∼ least

The test turned out to be less difficult than we thought.

The money arrived when Sophie least expected it.

•  far ∼ further ∼ furthest or far ∼ farther ∼ farthest

The sun’s further away from the earth than the moon.

They seem to be farther apart than ever before.

Comparison of quantifiers: Waste less money!

  504   The quantifiers much, many, little and few (see 676) also have special comparative and superlative forms when they function as determiners and pronouns:

•  much ∼ more ∼ most

We need more money to buy new computers for the students.

Jack got more than he deserved.

Most of our computer equipment is ten years old.

•  many ∼ more ∼ most

We also need more books in the department.

I find most people working in the library very helpful.

•  little ∼ less ∼ least

We now spend less money on periodicals than last year.

I haven’t the least idea what to do now.

•  few ∼ fewer ∼ fewest or few ∼ less ∼ least (On the choice of fewer/less, see 73.)

We want fewer/less, not more restrictions.

Comparative clauses: Ann speaks French better than I do.

  505   The comparative form of adjectives and adverbs is used when we want to compare one thing with another in order to point out some difference (see 225). For this purpose, a subclause beginning with than can be added after the comparative word:

The author’s most recent book is more interesting than his previous ones were.

In this sentence, more interesting may be called the hinge element of the comparison. The hinge element is the phrase which contains the comparative word. The following than-clause modifies the hinge element. It is called a ‘hinge’ because it belongs, in terms of meaning, both to the main clause and to the comparative subclause. The meaning of the hinge element more interesting complements is in the main clause and were in the subclause. But in terms of structure, the subclause does not contain a complement. Here are some more examples of comparative clauses:

Nicole looks much younger than her sister does.

Charles speaks French less well than he writes it.

We’re in a hurry because prices are going up faster than we can buy.

Comparative phrases: Ann speaks French better than I/me.

  506   The part of the sentence following than may have different structures:

Ann can speak French better than I can.

[1]

Ann can speak French better than I. <formal>

[2]

Ann can speak French better than me. <informal>

[3]

In [1] we have the subclause than I can (with speak it omitted). Other elements of a subclause can also be omitted if they repeat the information in the main clause. If the verb is omitted, we are left with a comparative phrase as in [2] and [3] rather than a comparative clause. In <informal> English, the than-phrase (than me as in [3]) behaves like a prepositional phrase (to me, for me, etc.) with the following pronoun in the objective case: me, them, etc. (see 620). In <formal> English the subjective form of the pronoun (than I, they, etc.) is used, if the pronoun is notionally the subject of the omitted verb: than I [2] = than I can speak it. In <informal> English such clauses can be ambiguous:

He seems to like his dog more than his children.

The most likely meaning is:

He seems to like his dog more than he likes his children.

But another possible meaning is:

He seems to like his dog more than his children do.

An adverbial or adjective can follow than in comparative phrases:

Emma struck him as more beautiful than ever.

James said no more than usual.

There is higher unemployment in the north than in the south.

  507   Some types of comparative phrases cannot be related to comparative clauses. One type is concerned with comparison of degree and amount:

There were fewer than twenty people at the meeting.

I have better things to do than watching television.

Another type is concerned with comparison of descriptions, where only comparison with more or less can be used:

The performance was more good than bad. (‘The performance was good rather than bad.’)

The types of structure just discussed in 505–6 are found both with ‘unequal’ comparisons (more quickly, less well), and with ‘equal’ comparisons (as quickly as you can, as much as anybody else, etc.; see 230):

The voters seem to like the one candidate as much as the other.

Complements

(see CGEL 10.8, 16.20–83)

  508   The term ‘complement’, in a general sense, means something that is necessary to complete a grammatical construction. We distinguish three types of complement: clause complements, adjective complements and prepositional complements.

Clause complements (see 491): She is a very good lecturer.

The complement of a clause can be

•  a noun phrase (see 595):

Dr Fonda’s a very good lecturer.

•  an adjective or adjective phrase (see 440):

Dr Fonda’s lectures are interesting and easy to follow.

•  a nominal clause (see 588):

The only trouble is (that) I can’t read what she writes on the blackboard.

These examples show that the complement usually comes after the verb. If there is both an object and a complement in the sentence, the complement normally comes after the object:

All students consider her a very good lecturer.

The complement cannot normally be omitted. If we take away the complement, the remaining part does not make a good English sentence:

The poor service made the hotel guests absolutely furious. (BUT NOT: *The poor service made the hotel guests.)

The object, but not the complement, can become subject if an active sentence is turned into a passive sentence (see 613):

She is considered a very good lecturer.

A complement often expresses a quality or attribute of the subject or object:

The hotel guests were absolutely furious.

The complement can also tell us the identity of the subject or object:

My native language is Chinese. (‘Chinese is my native language’)

Adjective complements can be that-clauses, to-infinitives and prepositional phrases (see 436):

I’m glad (that) you think so.

[that- or zero that-clause]

I’m glad to hear that.

[to-infinitive]

I’m glad of your success.

[prepositional phrase]

Prepositional complements

In the last example, the prepositional phrase of your success is the complement of the adjective glad. The prepositional phrase itself consists of a preposition (of) and its complement (your success). The complement is usually a noun phrase (see 595):

The committee argued about the change in the document.

But it can also be a wh-clause (see 590):

The committee argued about what ought to be changed in the document.

or an -ing clause (see 594):

The committee argued about changing the wording of the document.

Concord

(see CGEL 10.34–50)

  509   Grammatical concord means that certain grammatical items agree with each other. Concord is therefore also called agreement. There are two types: concord of number (as in singular the film is … but plural the films are …) and concord of person (as in 1st person I am but 2nd person you are).

Concord of number: she knows ∼ they know

Subject-verb concord

With all verbs except be, the question of number concord arises only in the present tense: she knows ∼ they know. In the past tense there is no concord variation: she knew ∼ they knew.

Be differs from other verbs in having many forms: am, is, are [the present tense] and was, were [the past tense] (see 482, 514). A clause acting as subject counts as singular:

To treat soldiers as hostages is criminal.

The modal auxiliaries differ from other verbs in having only one form (must, can, will, etc.): she must know ∼ they must know.

Pronoun concord

A pronoun which refers back to a singular noun phrase is in the singular, and a pronoun which refers back to a plural noun phrase is in the plural (but see 96 on the singular use of they):

She lost her life. ∼They lost their lives.

Notional concord: The government is/are agreed.

  510   Sometimes we find that the singular form of certain nouns, such as family, can be treated as plural:

A new family have moved in across the street.

This is called notional concord, since the verb (are) agrees with the idea of plural in the group noun (family) rather than the actual singular form of the noun. But it is also possible to treat a group noun like family as singular:

A new family has moved in across the street.

This is called grammatical concord because the basic grammatical rule says:

singular subject + singular verb AND plural subject + plural verb

When the group is being considered as a single undivided body, the singular tends to be used, but it is often hard to see such a meaning distinction. Plural concord after a group noun is more frequent in informal speech than in formal writing. Also, plural concord is more characteristic of <BrE> than of <AmE>. Other group nouns which allow either singular or plural concord are these, many of them decision-making bodies: association, audience, board, commission, committee, company, council, crew, department, government, jury, party, public, staff. Here are some examples of actual usage:

The audience was generous with its cheers and applause and flowers.

The audience were clearly delighted with the performance.

A committee has been set up so that in the future it will discuss such topics in advance.

The committee believe it is essential that their proposal should be adopted as soon as possible.

We have a market where the majority consistently wins what the minority loses.

The majority of the population are of Scandinavian descent.

The government has recognized its dilemma and is beginning to devise better school education.

The government want to keep the plan to themselves.

Not even the New York public has enough money to meet its needs.

The public are thinking of planning their forthcoming annual holiday.

There is also a special case of plural concord with singular proper names which denote sports teams: Arsenal win 3–1, England have been practising for two days. This is regular usage in <BrE>, but not in <AmE> unless the team is in the plural: The New York Giants win again.

Attraction: A large number of people disagree.

  511   The basic concord rule, singular subject + singular verb and plural subject + plural verb, is sometimes influenced by attraction. This means that the verb tends to agree with a noun or pronoun that closely precedes it, instead of the headword of the subject:

A large number of people have asked her to stand for reelection.

A variety of analytic methods have been used.

The grammatical heads of the noun phrases (number and variety) are both singular, and one would expect the verb form has. But the plural noun (people and methods) in the of-phrase modifying the head influences the form of the nearby verb. We call this feature attraction or proximity, because the last noun attracts a certain form in the verb and upsets the rule of grammatical concord. Attraction clearly works together with notional concord in many cases, in that the head noun (number, variety, majority, etc.) conveys the idea of ‘plural’.

Concord with coordinated subjects:

Law and order is an election issue.

  512   When a subject consists of two or more noun phrases coordinated by and, the verb is typically in the plural:

Monday and Tuesday are very busy for me.

The coordination is taken to be a reduction of two clauses (‘Monday is busy and Tuesday is busy’; see 515). But sometimes the verb is singular:

Law and order is considered important in this election.

instead of

Law and order are considered important in this election.

Here the choice of singular or plural verb depends on how we look at these qualities in the subject, whether they are seen as separate issues (Law and order are …) or as a single, complex issue (Law and order is …). A singular verb is also used when coordinated noun phrases refer to the same person or thing:

At the party my colleague and long-time friend, Charles Bedford, was the guest of honour.

When two noun phrases are joined by or or either … or, the general rule is that the number of the verb is determined by the number of the last noun phrase (this is the factor of attraction or proximity; see 511):

Either the workers or the director is to blame for the disruption.

Either the director or the workers are to blame for the disruption.

But such sentences are often felt to be awkward. To avoid such concord problems, it is usually possible to use a modal auxiliary verb (which has the same form in the singular and the plural), for example:

Either the workers or the director must be blamed for the disruption.

Concord with indefinite expressions of amount:

None of them is/are here.

  513   •  Indefinite expressions of amount, especially any, no, and none, often cause concord problems. The following cases follow the basic concord rule:

No person of that name lives here. [singular count + singular verb]

No people of that name live here. [plural count + plural verb]

So far no money has been spent on repairs. [mass noun + singular verb]

I’ve ordered the cement, but none (of it) has yet arrived. [mass noun + singular verb]

With none of + a plural noun phrase both a singular and a plural verb occur:

None of us wants/want to be killed young.

With none of, grammatical concord insists that none is singular, but notional concord invites a plural verb. A singular verb is typical of <written, formal> style, whereas a plural verb is the more natural choice in <spoken informal> English. In conversations, a plural verb is the more natural choice:

None of her boys have been successful in the world.

None of the people there were any more competent than we are.

None of my colleagues have said anything about it.

•  The same rule also applies to neither and either:

I sent cards to Avis and Margery but neither of them has/have replied.

In fact, I doubt if either of them is/are coming.

•  The plural pronoun they is often used in <informal> style as a replacement of pronouns ending in -body and -one:

Everyone thinks they have the answer to the current problems.

Has anybody brought their camera?

Anybody with any sense would have read the play in translation, wouldn’t they?

In traditional <formal> English, the tendency has been to use he when the sex is not stated:

Everyone thinks he has the answer.

Increasingly, writers who want to avoid male dominance in language use replace he with he or she or with s/ he in such cases (see 96). Nowadays the use of ‘unisex’ they is becoming more current also in <written> English:

Everyone thinks they have the answer.

Concord of person: I am ∼ she is ∼ they are

  514   As well as concord of number, there is concord of person.

  Be has three forms in the present tense (see 482).

I am ∼ he/she/it is ∼ we/you/they are

  Main verbs have only two forms in the present tense (see 573):

He/she/our friend etc. likes cooking. [3rd person singular]

I/you/we/they/our friends etc. like cooking. [not 3rd person singular]

  Modal auxiliaries have only one form (see 483):

I/we/you/he/she/our friend/our friends etc. will cook dinner today.

Notice that you behaves like a plural pronoun for number concord. This is because, historically, you was a plural second person form: the old singular form (thou) is almost never used today.

Coordination

(see CGEL 13.1–103)

  515   Coordination can occur between different grammatical units: clauses, clause elements, words. In coordination, equivalent units are linked by and, or or but.

Coordination of clauses: I’m selling my car and buying a new one.

Clauses, phrases or words may be linked together (coordinated) by the conjunctions and, or, but. In these examples, the conjunctions are used to link clauses:

It’s November and there isn’t a single tourist in sight.

Do you want me to send the report to you or do you want me to keep it?

Oscar is away for a couple of days, but (he) will be back on Monday.

When the subjects of the two clauses refer to the same person or thing, the second subject is normally omitted, as in the last example. If the clauses have matching auxiliary verbs, they are also generally omitted:

Laura may have received the letter but (she may have) forgotten to reply.

Coordination of parts of clauses

  516   Coordination can be used to link parts of clauses (such as subjects, verbs, objects) rather than whole clauses. Such coordination can often be seen as cases of clause coordination in which repeated parts are omitted. For example, the sentence

Her mother needed a chat and some moral support.

can be expanded as

Her mother needed a chat and her mother needed some moral support.

But in other cases we cannot reconstruct two complete clauses:

My closest friends are Peter and his wife.

This does not mean:

My closest friend is Peter and my closest friend is his wife.

In addition, there are cases of coordination by and which may indicate a ‘reciprocal’ relationship:

By the time the first crackling of spring came around, Joan and I were hopelessly in love. (‘Joan was in love with me and I was in love with Joan.’)

Last night our dog and the neighbour’s were having a fight. (‘Our dog and the neighbour’s were having a fight with each other.’)

Since coordination in phrases has different functions, we shall treat coordination of phrases and smaller parts in terms of what elements are linked, rather than what elements are omitted. We deal with the omission of repeated elements in 391.

But as a coordinator is more limited than and and or. For example, it cannot normally link phrases, except in combination with a negative:

I have been to Switzerland, but not to the Alps.

or where two adjectives or adjective phrases are coordinated:

The weather was warm but rather cloudy.

Coordination of clause elements:

Wash by hand or in the washing machine.

  517   Here are some examples of coordination within different clause elements:

SUBJECTS: Social security and retirement plans will be important election issues.

VERB PHRASES: Many of the laws need to be studied and will have to be revised.

COMPLEMENTS: The laws are rather outmoded or totally inadequate and often ambiguous.

ADVERBIALS: You can wash this sweater by hand or in the washing machine.

COORDINATION BETWEEN PREPOSITIONAL COMPLEMENTS:

Our team plays in red shirts and white shorts.

The armrest must be down during take-off and landing.

Coordination of words: Tomorrow will be nice and sunny.

  518   Coordination can link two words of the same word class.

NOUNS: Older people think many boys and girls look the same nowadays.

ADJECTIVES: Tomorrow’s weather will be nice and sunny.

CONJUNCTIONS: If and when she decided to tell her parents about her plans, she would do so unasked.

Sometimes words of different classes are linked, where they have a similar function:

You and Sandra must visit us sometime. [noun and pronoun]

The game can be played by three or more contestants. [numeral and quantifier]

Conjunctions omitted: a sandwich, a salad and a cup of tea

  519   When more than two items are coordinated, the conjunction is normally omitted before each item except the last. In <speech>, a rising tone is normally used on all items in the list except the last:

image

In <writing>, a comma is usually used to separate all the items except the last two, but many writers put a comma also before and in such a list. We often omit and before the linking adverbs then, so and yet:

The car spun around again, (and) then violated two stop lights.

It’s a small college, (and) yet most students love it.

Correlative coordination: reactions of both approval and disapproval

  520   Sometimes the coordination of two structures is made more emphatic by the addition of a word at the beginning of the first structure: both X and Y, either X or Y, neither X nor Y, etc. This is called correlative coordination:

The proposal produced strong reactions of both approval and disapproval.

The audience last night did not respond with either applause or boos.

The anti-trust laws are neither effective nor rational.

Another case of correlative coordination is not (only) … but … (see 234, 269).

Demonstratives

(see CGEL 6.40–44, 12.8–20)

  521   The words this, that, these and those are called demonstratives. They can be grouped as two sets with the general meaning ‘near’ and ‘distant’ (compare the pairs here/there, now/then in 100):

 

Singular

Plural

‘near’

this

these

‘distant’

that

those

  The demonstratives have number contrast for singular and plural:

this book ∼ these books

that book ∼ those books

  The demonstratives can function as determiners in noun phrases (see 523):

This time Elizabeth felt nervous.

  The demonstratives can also function as pronouns, i.e. as whole noun phrases (see 595):

This is a public park.

That’s another story.

In <more formal> use, that and those (but not this and these) can function as relative antecedents, i.e. the word the relative pronoun refers to (see 382, 686):

Richard took up a life similar to that (which) he had lived in San Francisco.

The elements which capture his imagination are those which make the story worth telling and worth remembering.

That cannot be an antecedent of who because that can only refer to things in this construction. For reference to people those who is used:

75 per cent of those who returned the questionnaire were in favour of the proposal.

Determiners

(see CGEL 5.10–25)

  522   Determiners are words which specify the range of reference of a noun, e.g. by making it definite (the book), indefinite (a book), or by indicating quantity (many books). To understand the grammatical role of determiners, we have to see what determiners and nouns can occur together. Proper nouns do not normally take a determiner (see 667). There are three classes of common nouns relevant to the choice of determiners:

•  Singular count nouns: book, teacher, idea, etc.

•  Plural count nouns: books, teachers, ideas, etc.

•  Mass nouns: meat, information, money, etc.

Determiners always precede the noun they determine, but they have different positions relative to one another. The most important group of determiners is the one that includes the articles (a, an, the), the demonstratives (this, that, etc.), and the possessives (my, your, etc.):

a book, the books; this idea, these ideas, my idea, my ideas, etc.

We call this group central determiners, or simply group 2 determiners because they may be preceded by group 1 determiners like all and half:

all the books, all these people, all my ideas, etc.

half the time, half a kilo, etc.

Group 2 determiners may be followed by group 3 determiners like second and many:

a second time, the many problems

The three types of determiners are listed in this table:

Group 1 determiners

Group 2 determiners

Group 3 determiners

all, both, half (see 524)

Articles:

the, a, an (see 523)

Cardinal numerals:

one, two, three, four, … (see 525)

double, twice, … one-third, … (see 524)

Demonstratives:

this, these, that, those (see 523)

Ordinal numerals:

first, second, third, etc. (see 525)

what, such, … (see 524)

Possessives:

my, your, his, her, etc. (see 523)

General ordinals:

next, last, other, etc. (see 525)

Quantifiers:

some, any, no, every, each, either, neither, enough, much (see 677)

Quantifiers:

many, few, little, several, more, less, etc. (see 677)

Wh-determiners:

what(ever), which(ever), whose (see 523)

Group 2 determiners: the book, those people, her money

(A) Determiners with count nouns and mass nouns

  523   The following determiners can occur with all three classes of noun (singular or plural count nouns and mass nouns):

  The definite article the (see 473):

Have you got the book/the books/the money?

  The possessives acting as determiners: my, our, your, his, her, its, their (see 624):

Have you seen my book/my books/my money?

The genitive (see 530) functions like a possessive determiner. Compare:

The teacher liked the student’s essay.

The teacher liked her essay.

  Some and any when they are stressed:

There must be some misconception in your minds’, she said.

The defendant refused to make any further statement.

  The negative quantifier no (see 583):

There was no debate as the Senate passed the bill.

There were no audience questions after the lecture.

  The wh-determiners whose, which, whichever, what, whatever (see 536, 592):

The house whose roof was damaged has now been repaired.

Whichever way one looked at it, it was her good fortune to have a good job.

Have you decided what adjustments should be made?

We have to carry out whatever preparations are needed.

(B) Determiners with plural count nouns and mass nouns

(but not with singular count nouns)

  Zero article (see 473):

These people need tractors and help with farming.

  Unstressed some /səm/ (see 474, 677, 698):

I may settle for some makeshift arrangements for the summer.

  Unstressed any (see 677, 698):

| Have you any clòthes | or any fùrniture to sell? |

  Enough (see 677):

I don’t think there’s enough money in the library to spend on books.

There has not been time enough to institute reforms.

As the last example shows, enough can be placed after the headword, but this is less usual.

(C) Determiners with singular count nouns and mass nouns

The demonstratives this and that can occur with singular count nouns or mass nouns (but not with plural count nouns; see 521):

This research requires expensive equipment.

I find that poetry difficult to understand.

(D) Determiners with singular count nouns only

  The indefinite article a, an (see 473):

Wait a minute!     What an opportunity!

  The quantifiers every, each, either, neither (see 75, 676):

Every Saturday he gets a big kick out of football.

They took the 8.30 train to the city each morning.

Either way it sounds like a bad solution.

It is to the advantage of neither side to destroy the opponent’s cities.

(E) Determiners with plural count nouns only

The plural demonstrative determiners these and those can occur with plural count nouns only (see 521):

‘I’ve been waiting to get these things done for months’, she said.

Rebecca felt it was just going to be one of those days when life was unbearable.

(F) Determiner with mass nouns only

The quantifier much can occur with mass nouns only (see 676):

Some of the young players have so much ability.

Group 1 determiners: all the time, twice the number

  524   When combined with other determiners, Group 1 determiners are placed before Group 2 determiners: all the time, both the children, twice the number, etc. There are four types of Group 1 determiners:

All, both, half (see 677) occur before articles, possessives, or demonstratives.

All goes with plural count nouns and mass nouns:

Through all these years she had avoided the limelight.

During all this time Roy Thornton continued to paint.

With a singular count noun, all the + noun occasionally occurs, but all of the + noun or the whole + noun is more common:

All (of) the town was destroyed by fire.

∼ The whole town was destroyed by fire.

Both goes with plural count nouns only:

Both (the) books were out of the library.

Half goes with singular or plural count nouns and mass nouns:

The bridge was half a mile downstream.

More than half the audience departed.

In this village, nearly half the children receive no education.

He stays on the island for half the summer.

Double, twice, three times, four times, etc. occur with singular and plural count nouns or mass nouns denoting amount, degree, etc.:

The party needs double that number of votes to win the election.

The area is approximately three times the size of the old location.

  The fractions one-third, two-fifths, three-quarters, etc. usually have the construction with of:

Grains and other seed food products furnish less than one-third of the food consumed.

What and such occur before the indefinite article with singular count nouns:

Victoria kept telling herself again and again what a fool she’d been.

They had no knowledge of such a letter.

At first glance the idea looked such a good one.

With plural count nouns and mass nouns what and such occur without an article:

It’s amazing what beautiful designs she has come up with.

Our present enemies may well use such terrible and inhumane weapons.

I could hardly believe such good luck was mine.

  The degree words rather and quite behave like Group 1 determiners:

Sometimes life can be rather a disappointing business.

I’ve known him for quite a while.

Group 3 determiners: the next few days, a great many students

  525   Group 3 determiners, which include numerals and quantifiers, occur after Group 2 determiners, but before adjectives or noun phrase heads.

  Cardinal numerals: one, two, three, etc. The numeral one can of course occur only with singular count nouns, and all other cardinal numerals (two, three, …) only with plural count nouns (see 602):

There’s only (the) one farm north of here.

(Some) ten passengers were stranded at the station.

   Ordinal numerals (first, second, third, etc.) occur only with count nouns and usually precede any cardinal numbers in the noun phrase:

Philip had spent the first three years in Edinburgh.

   General ordinals include next, last, other, further, etc., which usually precede ordinal numerals:

This was Johnson’s best match in the last two years.

Pamela spent her next five days at home.

But compare the word order of other with and without the definite article:

The other two projects have been scheduled for completion next year.

Two other children were seriously wounded in the highway accident.

Another is a combination of two determiners (an + other):

At the meeting, another speaker also came under criticism.

In another four weeks we are going on vacation. (‘four weeks from now’)

Quantifiers: I said a few, not few friends.

  526    Quantifiers denote quantity or amount (see 676).

  Many, several, a few, few and fewer occur only with plural count nouns:

I have corrected the many spelling errors in your report.

I haven’t seen my sisters for several years.

Here are a few facts and figures. (‘a small number’)

Probably only very few people are aware of this tradition. (‘not many’)

There are fewer people going to church nowadays.

  Little (like much) occurs only with mass nouns:

I advise you to use the little money you have to some purpose.

Ruth had to work very hard with little help from her relatives. (‘not much help’)

(The adjective little, contrasting with big, is not being considered here.) Notice the different meanings of little and few compared with a little and a few:

Can you give me a little help? (‘some help’)

BUT: They gave little help. (‘not much help’)

She has invited a few friends to the party. (‘some friends’)

BUT: She’s got few friends left. (‘not many friends’)

   The comparative determiner more occurs with plural nouns and mass nouns:

We are taking more students this year in our department.

There has been more activity than usual this year.

Less occurs regularly with mass nouns:

With no drunken drivers there would be less anxiety and fewer accidents.

Many people also use less with plural count nouns (less accidents) but fewer is preferred in <more formal> contexts.

  527   •  Some highly frequent phrases denoting number and quantity are also similar to determiners. As the table below shows, some of them can occur only with count nouns in the plural (e.g. a large number of students), others can occur only with mass nouns (e.g. a large amount of money).

Images

Notice that the verb has concord with the noun following of, not with plenty, lot and number (see 511):

Images

This concord rule also applies to introductory there constructions:

Images

When number and amount are used in the plural, there is plural concord:

There were large numbers of cars on the road this morning.

Only small amounts of money are still needed for the expedition.

Exclamations

(see CGEL 11.31–32)

  528   An exclamation is a type of sentence which is used to express the speaker’s feeling or attitude. It typically occurs in <speech>:

What a lovely dinner we had last night!

How well Helen Booth is playing tonight!

The exclamation begins with the determiner what in noun phrases (see 524) or the degree word how with adjectives or adverbs (see 465). To form an exclamation, put the element of the sentence containing what or how at the beginning of the sentence (as with wh-questions, see 683), but do not alter the order of subject and verb:

You have such a good library.

What a good library you have!

She writes such marvellous books.

What marvellous books she writes!

You are so lucky to have such a good library.

How lucky you are to have such a good library!

She sings so beautifully.

How beautifully she sings!

On other types of exclamatory construction, see 254, 298.

Gender

(see CGEL 5.104–111)

  529   English gender, in a grammatical sense, is restricted to certain pronouns (see 619) which have separate forms for masculine/feminine and personal/non-personal, for example as shown in the table below.

Personal: masculine

he

who

somebody

Personal: feminine

she

who

somebody

Non-personal

it

which

something

Nouns, adjectives, and articles have no gender distinctions. Since English nouns have no grammatical gender, the choice of he, she, and it is based on natural distinctions of meaning. The choice between he and she depends on whether the person is male or female (see 96 for discussion of male and female reference).

Genitive

(see CGEL 5.112–126, 17.37–46, 110, 119)

Genitive of singular nouns

  530   In <written> English, the genitive case of nouns in the singular is written ’s (apostrophe + s). In <spoken> English, the genitive case of nouns in the singular is pronounced /ɪz/, /z/, or /s/. The pronunciation depends on the last sound of the noun (see the general pronunciation rules in 664):

Images

Genitive of regular plural nouns

In <written> English the genitive of nouns which have a regular s-plural is indicated only by an apostrophe after the plural-s. In <spoken> English the genitive is not pronounced, i.e. the singular and the plural genitive sound alike, but are not written alike:

Images

Genitive of irregular plural nouns

Nouns which do not form the plural with the s ending have apostrophe + s in the genitive (see 637):

Images

Singular names

The genitive which is indicated only by the apostrophe occurs also with singular names ending in -s such as Jones. The genitive is written either Jones’ or Jones’s, and usually pronounced /'dʒoʊnzɪz/. The spelling with apostrophe only is particularly common with longer names of classical origin: Euripides’ plays, Socrates’ wife.

The genitive and the of-construction

  531   English often offers a choice when we want to express the genitive relation between nouns. In many cases we can use either the genitive or the of-construction:

What’s the ship’s name?

[genitive]

What’s the name of the ship?

[of-construction]

Here the function of the noun in the genitive case (ship’s) is similar to that of the noun as head of a noun phrase following of (of the ship). This is called the of-construction.

  The of-construction is mostly used with nouns denoting things. We can say the leg of a table but not *a table’s leg.

  The s-genitive is typically used with nouns denoting people. We can say John’s car but not *the car of John. The genitive is also commonly used in such phrases as a day’s work, today’s paper, a moment’s thought, the world’s economy. (On the choice of construction, see 106.)

Genitives in noun phrases

  532   Although we have described the genitive as a case of nouns, it is better to regard it as an ending belonging to noun phrases (see 595) rather than to nouns. The following examples show that the whole first noun phrase, i.e. the genitive noun phrase, modifies the head of the main noun phrase:

Genitive noun phrase

Rest of the main noun phrase

some people’s

opinion

every teacher’s

ambition

the Australian government’s

recent decision

This is seen more clearly when we compare equivalent of-phrases:

the opinion

of some people

the ambition

of every teacher

the recent decision

of the Australian government

The genitive noun phrase occupies determiner position (see 522) in the main noun phrase. Thus it precedes adjectives in the main noun phrase. Compare:

the longest novel

his longest novel

Charles Dickens’ longest novel

But a genitive noun can also behave like an adjective, with a classifying role, as in a women’s university. In such cases, the genitive noun can follow the adjective modifying the head of the main noun phrase:

[a famous [women’s university] in Tokyo]

Group genitives: an hour and a half’s discussion

  533   In English we often have complex noun phrases such as

the Chairman of the Finance Committee

where the head noun (Chairman) is modified by a following prepositional phrase (of the Finance Committee; see 642). When we want to put such a long noun phrase in the genitive, the -s genitive is added to the end of the whole noun phrase (not to the head noun itself):

[[the Chairman of the Finance Committee’s] pointed remarks]

Since the genitive ending is added to the end of the whole phrase or group, this construction is called the group genitive. Other examples:

The rioters must have been acting on someone else’s instructions.

We’ll see what happens in a month or two’s time.

The lecture was followed by an hour and a half’s discussion.

Genitives without a head noun: at the Johnsons

  534   The noun modified by the -s genitive may be omitted, if the context makes its identity clear:

My car is faster than John’s. (i.e. ‘than John’s car’)

But John’s is a good car, too.

When the of-construction is used instead, a pronoun is usually required (that for singular and those for plural, see 382):

A blind person’s sense of touch is more sensitive to shape and size than

that of a person with normal vision.

The new CD-players are much better than those of the first generation.

Omission of the head noun is typical of expressions relating to houses, shops, etc.:

We met at the Johnsons’. (‘at the place where the Johnsons live’)

The ‘double’ genitive: a friend of my wife’s

  535   An of-construction can be combined with an s-genitive or possessive pronoun into a ‘double’ genitive:

Shannon is a friend of my wife’s.

This writer’s style is no favourite of mine.

The noun in the genitive must be both definite and personal. Unlike the simple genitive, the ‘double’ genitive usually implies that the meaning is not unique, i.e. that ‘my wife has several friends’. Compare:

He is Leda’s brother. [suggests Leda has one, or more than one, brother]

He is a brother of Leda’s. [suggests Leda has more than one brother]

Interrogatives

(see CGEL 6.36–39, 11.14–23)

  536   Interrogatives are words which introduce wh-questions (see 683):

What’s Mrs Brown’s first name?

and interrogative subclauses (see 590):

I’m not sure what Mrs Brown’s first name is.

The English interrogative words are who, whom, whose, which, what, where, when, how, why, whether, if (‘whether’). We call them ‘wh-words’ (since most of them begin with wh-). Whether and if are used only in interrogative subclauses.

Interrogatives in noun phrases: What time is it?, What’s the time?

  537   In the noun phrase, the interrogatives which and what can act as both determiner and pronoun:

What as determiner:

What time is it?

What as pronoun:

What’s the time?

The different interrogative determiners and pronouns are set out in the following table.

Images

Who, whom, whose, which, and what are used both as interrogatives and as relative pronouns (see 690). The relative which can only have non-personal reference [1b], but the interrogative which is used with both non-personal and personal reference [2a, 2b]. Compare:

The author who wrote my favourite novel is Graham Greene. [personal relative who]

[1a]

The novel which I like best is The End of the Affair. [non-personal relative which]

[1b]

Which is your favourite author? [personal interrogative which]

[2a]

Who is your favourite author? [personal interrogative who]

[2b]

The choice of interrogative: who or which, what or which?

  538   The meaning of interrogative who, as in [2b], is different from the meaning of interrogative which, as in [2a]. The difference has to do with indefinite and definite reference. The definite interrogative which [2a] indicates that the speaker is thinking of a definite group to choose from. Who [2b] and also what have indefinite reference, i.e. the speaker has no definite group in mind. Here are some examples:

The interrogative determiner with a personal noun

Indefinite reference:

What composers do you like best?

Definite reference:

Which composer do you prefer: Mozart or Beethoven?

The interrogative determiner with a non-personal noun

Indefinite reference:

What tax changes are likely in the new budget?

Definite reference:

Which way are you going – right or left?

Which Scottish university did you go to: Edinburgh or St Andrews?

The interrogative pronoun referring to persons

Indefinite reference:

Who sent you here?

Definite reference:

Which is your favourite composer: Mozart or Beethoven?

The interrogative pronoun with non-personal reference

Indefinite reference:

What’s the name of this song?

Definite reference:

Which do you prefer: classical or popular music?

Which do you want: the domestic or the international airport terminal?

Which can be followed by an of-phrase. Compare these three sentences:

Which of the films do you like best?

[1]

Which film do you like best?

[2]

Which films do you like best?

[3]

Sentence [1] can have the same meaning as either [2] or [3]. It invites us to choose from a group: either one (singular) or more than one (plural).

The choice of interrogative: who, whom or whose?

  539   The interrogative pronoun who is personal only:

Who sent you here?

Both who and whom are used for the objective case, but whom is <formal>:

Who did Abigail marry?

Whom did Abigail marry? <formal>

With a preposition, the <informal> construction is to place the preposition at the end:

Who did the generals stay loyal to? <informal>

In the corresponding <formal> construction the interrogative follows the preposition, in which case the objective form whom is obligatory:

To whom did the generals stay loyal? <formal>

The possessive interrogative whose can function either as a determiner or as a pronoun:

Whose jacket is this? [determiner] Whose is this jacket? [pronoun]

The noun following the determiner whose can be either personal or non-personal:

Whose children are they?

Whose side are you on?

The choice of interrogative: what versus who and which

  540   As the following examples show, what has a wide range of uses.

What can have both personal and non-personal reference and can function both as a determiner (What nationality is he?) and as a pronoun (What’s his nationality?):

image

When what is a pronoun and refers to a person it is limited to questions about profession and role. Contrast the three possible pronouns in:

image

Interrogative adverbs and conjunctions: Where are you going?

  541   Besides interrogative determiners and pronouns, there are interrogative adverbs (where, when, why, how) and conjunctions (whether, if).

•  Where refers to place at or place to (see 170):

Where are you staying? (‘At what place?’)

Where are you going for your vacation? (‘To what place?’)

•  When refers to time (see 151):

When are you leaving? (‘At what time?’)

•  Why refers to cause, reason, and purpose (see 198):

Why are you going there? (‘For what reason?’)

•  How refers to manner, means, and instrument (see 194):

How are you travelling? (‘By what means?’)

How is also an interrogative adverb of degree (see 215). In this function how can modify adverbs, adjectives and determiners:

How often do you see your friends?

How long are you staying?

How big is your boat?

How many people can it take?

Whether and if are interrogative conjunctions. Like the other interrogatives, they introduce indirect (yes-no) questions (see 259, 682).

Introductory it: It’s fascinating to read her story.

(see CGEL 18.33–36)

  542   The regular word order in English is subject + verb:

The colour of the car doesn’t matter.

[1]

Instead of a noun phrase like the colour of the car we may have a clause as subject (see 588), such as

What colour the car is doesn’t matter.

[1a]

However, [1a] is less common than [1b] with an introductory it:

It doesn’t matter what colour the car is.

[1b]

In [1b] the subject clause (what colour the car is) is placed at the end of the sentence. The normal subject position at the beginning of the sentence is filled by it, ‘introducing’ the long following subject clause. [1b] contains two subjects: the introductory subject it and the postponed subject what colour the car is. Here are some more examples of sentences with introductory it:

It’s too early to go and visit Sue at the hospital now.

It makes me happy to see others enjoying themselves.

It’s easy to understand why Bill wanted a new job.

It made no difference that most evidence pointed to an opposite conclusion.

It’s simply untrue that there has been another big row in the department.

It’s no use pretending everything is all right.

It would be no good trying to catch the bus now.

  543   The introductory-it construction is also used in the passive

•  to introduce a that-clause:

It’s not actually been announced yet that the job will be advertised.

It’s actually been suggested that income tax should be abolished.

•  to introduce direct or indirect speech:

It might be asked at this point: ‘Why not alter the law?’

•  to introduce a to-infinitive:

In the end, it may be decided not to apply for membership.

Cases which differ from introductory it

  544   Constructions such as It seems that …, It appears that …, It happens that … may look like introductory-it sentences, but they have no corresponding construction without it. For example, there is no such sentence corresponding to

It seems that everything is fine. (BUT NOT: *That everything is fine seems.)

It appeared that the theory was not widely supported by other scientists.

It quite often happens that things go wrong.

Also, introductory-it constructions should be distinguished from sentences where it is a personal pronoun, as in

This may not be much of a meal, but it’s what I eat.

Here it refers back to its antecedent, the singular noun phrase a meal (see 621).

Cases related to introductory it: Her story is fascinating to read.

  545   English grammar allows us to place the emphasis on different parts of sentences. In this sentence

To read her story is fascinating.

[1]

To read her story is a nominal clause functioning as subject. But English prefers to avoid a clause as subject. One alternative is the introductory-it construction, as in [1a]:

It’s fascinating to read her story.

[1a]

But if we want to start with her story as the topic of the sentence, we can say:

Her story is fascinating to read.

[1b]

In [1b] the object of the nominal clause, her story is ‘lifted out’ from the clause and ‘promoted’ to being subject in the main clause. The same construction can be used to ‘promote’ prepositional objects, such as her in:

To talk to her was interesting.

It was interesting to talk to her.

She was interesting to talk to.

In the process, the objective pronoun her becomes the subjective pronoun she.

  546   There is a similar construction for appear, seem, be certain, be sure, be known, be said, etc. + to-infinitive:

You seem to have read so much.

Our enemies are certain to exploit their advantage.

My parents are sure to find out.

George was never known to run or even walk fast.

Brenda Young is said to be the richest woman in the world.

The government appears to be facing a difficult year.

In these cases, however, the corresponding it-construction requires a that-clause. It is the subject of the that-clause that is ‘promoted’ to being subject of the main clause:

It appears that the government is facing a difficult year.

Introductory there: There won’t be any trouble.

(see CGEL 18.44–54)

  547   An English sentence like this one is possible but rare:

A storm is coming.

The natural way of saying this is to begin the sentence with an unstressed there and to postpone the indefinite subject (a storm):

There’s a storm coming.

This is called a sentence with introductory there, which is a very common type of construction. Here are some examples of different verb patterns (see 718) to show how they can be turned into sentences with introductory there, so long as the subject is indefinite and the verb phrase contains be:

There’s no water [in the house].

(SVA)

There are lots of people getting [jobs].

(SVO)

There’s something causing [her] [distress].

(SVOO)

There have been two bulldozers knocking [the place] [flat].

(SVOC)

There’s somebody coming.

(SV)

Passive sentences also occur:

There’s a new novel displayed in the window.

There’s been a handbag stolen in the department store.

If the postponed subject [printed in bold] is plural, the verb is also in the plural (but see 548 below):

There are many people trying to buy houses in this neighbourhood.

There seem to be no poisonous snakes around here.

Were there any other drivers around to see the accident?

There are some friends I have to see.

Introductory there as subject: I don’t want there to be any trouble.

  548   Introductory there differs from the stressed there functioning as a front-placed place adverb ('There is my car = My car is 'there, see 416). Introductory there is unstressed and behaves in some ways like the subject of the sentence. A frequent feature of <informal conversation> is the use of the singular verb contracted form ’s attached to the preceding there, also when the following postponed subject is plural. In both these examples the standard <written> and formally ‘correct’ construction would be there are (as stated in 547):

There’s only four bottles left. <informal spoken>

There’s better things to do than listen to gossip. <informal spoken>

Here, because of the contracted verb form, there’s behaves as a single invariable unit for the purposes of speech processing. There is a similar tendency to use here’s, where’s and how’s + plural subject in <informal conversation> instead of the formally ‘correct’ plural non-contracted forms here are, where are and how are + plural subject:

Here’s your keys. <informal speech>

∼ Here are your keys. <standard written>

How’s your kids? <informal speech>

∼ How are your kids? <standard written>

There can act as subject in yes-no questions (see 682) and tag questions (see 684), where inversion of be and there takes place:

Is there any more wine?

There’s no one else coming, is there?

There can also act as subject in infinitive clauses and -ing clauses (see 493):

I don’t want there to be any trouble.

Bill was disappointed at there being so little to do.

There being no further business, the meeting adjourned at 11.15. <formal>

Introductory there with relative and infinitive clauses:

There’s something I ought to tell you.

  549   •  There is a further type of introductory-there sentence. As an alternative of this sentence

Something keeps upsetting him.

we may have:

∼ There’s something (that) keeps upsetting him.

It consists of there + a form of be + a noun phrase + a clause which is like a relative clause (see 686). There must be an indefinite noun phrase in the sentence, but it need not be the subject:

Is there anyone in particular (that) you want to speak to?

(Compare: Do you want to speak to anyone in particular?)

•  Another common sentence pattern is introductory there + be + noun phrase + to-infinitive clause. The infinitive may have a for-subject:

Tonight there’s nothing else (for us) to do but watch TV.

There was no one (for her) to talk to.

This pattern also occurs in the passive:

There are several practical problems to be considered.

•  One type of there-sentence is typical of <literary> contexts:

There may come a time when Europe will be less fortunate.

(‘A time may come …’)

In this construction there can be followed by a verb other than be (such as come, lie, stand, exist, rise). With a place adverbial in front-position, there may be omitted in <literary> style (see 416):

On the other side of the valley (there) rose a gigantic rock surmounted by a ruined fortress. <formal, literary>

Irregular verbs

(see CGEL 3.11–20)

  550   Most English verbs are regular, but there are over 200 main verbs that are irregular. Irregular verbs are like regular verbs in having -s and -ing forms (see 573). For example, the irregular verb break has the forms breaks, breaking, just as the regular verb walk has the forms walks, walking. With regular verbs we can also predict that the past tense form and past participle forms are identical and formed with the -ed ending added to the base:

THE BASE

PAST FORM

PAST PARTICIPLE

walk

walked

walked

With irregular verbs, however, we cannot predict their past tense or past participle forms from the base:

THE BASE

PAST FORM

PAST PARTICIPLE

break

broke

broken

We distinguish three main types of irregular verbs:

•  Verbs in which all the three principal parts (the base, the past form, the past participle) are identical, for example,

cut ∼ cut ∼ cut

let ∼ let ∼ let

•  Verbs in which two parts are identical, for example,

spend ∼ spent ∼ spent

come ∼ came ∼ come

•  Verbs in which all three parts are different, for example,

blow ∼ blew ∼ blown

speak ∼ spoke ∼ spoken

Within each type, the verbs are here arranged according to similarity: ‘the spend-group’, ‘the speak-group’, etc. The following list is not exhaustive (see further GCEL 3.11–20). For auxiliary verbs, see 477–85.

We give two lists which include the majority of the English irregular verbs: the group list and the alphabetical list.

The group list (see 551–71)

In the first list the verbs are grouped according to how the past form and past participle forms differ from the base form. For example, put and cut belong to the one group where the verbs have identical forms for base, past form and past participle: put ∼ put ∼ put and cut ∼ cut ∼ cut. Dig and win belong to another group. These two verbs are similar in that each verb has identical past tense and past participle forms and also the same vowel change: dig ∼ dug ∼ dug and win ∼ won ∼ won. This organization into groups is intended to give an idea of the different types of irregular verbs, something which is not obvious from an alphabetical arrangement.

The alphabetical list (see 572)

For convenient reference we also include a second list where the verbs appear in alphabetical order but with references to the group list.

In both lists we give the three parts for each verb: the base, the past tense form and the past participle. For some verbs there are alternative forms. For example, the past form of sweat is given both as sweat (irregular) and sweated (regular). This means that both are used, but sometimes differently depending on context, style or variety. For example, of the two forms dreamt and dreamed, the latter is usually preferred in <AmE>. Alternative forms in round brackets, such as shone (shined), indicate infrequent or special uses:

The sun shone all day. BUT: He shined his shoes every morning.

Verbs printed in bold are common or very common, such as become, begin, bring.

The group list

All three verb parts are identical (but some verbs have alternative, non-identical forms)

The put group 551 bet

551

bet

bet, betted

bet, betted

 

bid

bid, bade

bid, bidden

 

broadcast

broadcast

broadcast

 

burst

burst

burst

 

bust <casual>

bust, busted

bust, busted

 

cast

cast

cast

 

cost

cost, (costed)

cost, (costed)

 

cut

cut

cut

 

fit

fit <esp AmE>, fitted

fit <esp AmE>, fitted

 

forecast

forecast

forecast

 

hit

hit

hit

 

hurt

hurt

hurt

 

input

input, inputted

input, inputted

 

knit

knit, knitted

knit, knitted

 

let

let

let

 

miscast

miscast

miscast

 

offset

offset

offset

 

outbid

outbid

outbid

 

put

put

put

 

quit

quit, quitted

quit, quitted

 

recast

recast

recast

 

reset

reset

reset

 

rid

rid, ridded

rid, ridded

 

set

set

set

 

shed

shed

shed

 

shit <taboo>

shit, shat

shit

 

shut

shut

shut

 

slit

slit

slit

 

split

split

split

 

spread

spread

spread

 

sweat

sweat, sweated

sweat, sweated

 

thrust

thrust

thrust

 

typeset

typeset

typeset

 

upset

upset

upset

 

wed

wed, wedded

wed, wedded

 

wet

wet, wetted

wet, wetted

Two verb parts are identical

The learn group

  552   These verbs can be either regular (learned) or irregular with a -t suffix (learnt). The regular /d/-form is especially <AmE> and the /t/-form especially <BrE>.

 

burn

burned, burnt

burned, burnt

 

dwell

dwelled, dwelt

dwelled, dwelt

 

learn

learned, learnt

learned, learnt

 

misspell

misspelled, misspelt

misspelled, misspelt

 

smell

smelled, smelt

smelled, smelt

 

spell

spelled, spelt

spelled, spelt

 

spill

spilled, spilt

spilled, spilt

 

spoil

spoiled, spoilt

spoiled, spoilt

The spend group

553

bend

bent

bent

 

build

built

built

 

lend

lent

lent

 

rebuild

rebuilt

rebuilt

 

rend

rent

rent

 

send

sent

sent

 

spend

spent

spent

 

unbend

unbent

unbent

The read group

554

behold <literary>

beheld

beheld

 

bleed

bled

bled

 

breed

bred

bred

 

feed

fed

fed

 

flee

fled

fled

 

hold

held

held

 

lead Images

led

led

 

mislead Images

misled

misled

 

overfeed

overfed

overfed

 

readImages

read /e/

read /e/

 

reread Images

reread Images

reread Images

 

speed

sped, speeded

sped, speeded

 

uphold

upheld

upheld

 

withhold

withheld

withheld

The keep group

  555   Where there are alternative regular forms (dreamed besides dreamt, etc.), the regular forms are usually preferred in <AmE>.

creep

crept

crept

dealImages

dealt /e/

dealt /e/

dream Images

dreamt /e/, dreamed

dreamt /e/, dreamed

feel

felt

felt

keep

kept

kept

kneel

knelt, kneeled

knelt, kneeled

leanImages

leant /e/, leaned

leant /e/, leaned

leap Images

leapt /e/, leaped

leapt /e/, leaped

leave

left

left

meanImages

meant /e/

meant /e/

meet

met

met

oversleep

overslept

overslept

sleep

slept

slept

sweep

swept

swept

weep

wept

wept

The win group

556

cling

clung

clung

 

dig

dug

dug

 

fling

flung

flung

 

hamstring

hamstrung

hamstrung

 

hang

hung, (hanged)

hung, (hanged)

 

restring

restrung

restrung

 

sling

slung

slung

 

slink

slunk

slunk

 

spin

spun, span

spun

 

stick

stuck

stuck

 

sting

stung

stung

 

strike

struck

struck

 

string

strung

strung

 

swing

swung

swung

 

win

won

won

 

wring

wrung

wrung

The bring group

557

bring

brought Images

brought Images

 

buy

bought

bought

 

catch

caught

caught

 

fight

fought

fought

 

seek

sought

sought

 

teach

taught

taught

 

think

thought

thought

The find group

558

bind /aI

bound Images

bound Images

 

find

found

found

 

grind

ground

ground

 

rewind

rewound

rewound

 

unbind

unbound

unbound

 

unwind

unwound

unwound

 

wind /aI

wound Images

wound Images

The get group

559

get

got

got, <AmE also> gotten (see 481)

 

loseImages

lost

lost

 

shine

shone, (shined)

shone, (shined)

 

shoot

shot

shot

The tell group

560

foretell

foretold

foretold

 

resell

resold

resold

 

retell

retold

retold

 

sell

sold

sold

 

tell

told

told

The come group

561

become

became

become

 

come

came

come

 

outrun

outran

outrun

 

overcome

overcame

overcome

 

overrun

overran

overrun

 

rerun

reran

rerun

 

run

ran

run

Other verbs with two forms identical

562

beat

beat

beaten, (beat)

 

browbeat

browbeat

browbeaten

 

have

had

had

 

hear

heard

heard

 

lay

laid [spelling irregular]

laid [spelling irr]

 

light

lit, lighted

lit, lighted

 

make

made

made

 

mishear

misheard

misheard

 

misunderstand

misunderstood

misunderstood

 

overhear

overheard

overheard

 

pay

paid [spelling irregular]

paid [spelling irregular

 

remake

remade

remade

 

say

said /e/

said /e/

 

sit

sat

sat

 

slide

slid

slid

 

spit

spat, spit

spat, spit

 

stand

stood

stood

 

understand

understood

understood

 

unmake

unmade

unmade

 

withstand

withstood

withstood

All three verb forms are different

The mow group: The past participle can be regular (mowed) or irregular (mown).

563

hew

hewed

hewn, hewed

 

mow

mowed

mown, mowed

 

saw

sawed

sawn, sawed

 

sew

sewed

sewn, sewed

 

show

showed

shown, (showed)

 

sow

sowed

sown, sowed

 

swell

swelled

swollen, swelled

The speak group

564

awake

awoke, awaked

awoken, awaked

 

break

broke

broken

 

chooseImages

chose Images

chosen Images

 

deepfreeze

deepfroze

deepfrozen

 

freeze

froze

frozen

 

speak

spoke

spoken

 

steal

stole

stolen

 

wake

woke, waked

woken, waked

 

weave

wove

woven

The bear group

565

bear /beә(r)/

bore

borne*

 

swear

swore

sworn

 

tear

tore

torn

 

wear

wore

worn

*Born is used in constructions with be. Note the spelling difference: ‘She has borne six children and the youngest was born only a month ago.’

The know group

566

blow

blew

blown

 

grow

grew

grown

 

know

knew

known

 

outgrow

outgrew

outgrown

 

overthrow

overthrew

overthrown

 

throw

threw

thrown

The bite group

567

bite

bit

bitten, (bit)

 

hide

hid

hidden, (hid)

The take group

568

mistake

mistook

mistaken

 

overtake

overtook

overtaken

 

shake

shook

shaken

 

take

took

taken

 

undertake

undertook

undertaken

The write group

569

arise /aI/

arose Images

arisen /I

 

drive

drove

driven

 

rewrite

rewrote

rewritten

 

ride

rode

ridden

 

rise

rose

risen

 

stride

strode

stridden, strode

 

strive

strove, strived

striven, strived

 

underwrite

underwrote

underwritten

 

write

wrote

written

The begin group

570

begin

began, (begun)

begun

 

drink

drank

drunk

 

ring

rang, rung

rung

 

shrink

shrank, shrunk

shrunk

 

sing

sang, sung

sung

 

sink

sank, sunk

sunk

 

spring

sprang, <AmE also> sprung

sprung

 

stink

stank, stunk

stunk

 

swim

swam, swum

swum

Other verbs with all three parts different

571

cleave

cleaved, clove, cleft

cleaved, cloven, cleft

 

dive

dived, dove <AmE only>

dived

 

do

did

done

 

draw

drew

drawn

 

eat

ate <BrE> /et/ or /eɪt/, <AmE> /eɪt/

eaten

 

fall

fell

fallen

 

fly

flew

flown

 

forbid

forbad(e)

forbidden, (forbid)

 

foresee

foresaw

foreseen

 

forget

forgot

forgotten, (forgot)

 

forgive

forgave

forgiven

 

give

gave

given

 

go

went

gone

 

lie

lay

lain

 

outdo

outdid

outdone

 

overdo

overdid

overdone

 

overeat

overate

overeaten

 

oversee

oversaw

overseen

 

redo

redid

redone

 

see

saw

seen

 

shear Images

sheared

shorn, sheared

 

slay

slew

slain

 

tread

trod

trodden, trod

 

undergo

underwent

undergone

 

undo

undid

undone

 

withdraw

withdrew

withdrawn

Irregular verbs in alphabetical order

  572   The numbers in the rightmost column refer to sections above (551–71) where verbs are listed in groups. Verbs printed in bold are common or very common, such as become, begin, bring.

arise

arose

arisen

569

awake

awoke, awaked

awoken, awaked

564

be

was, were

been

482

bear

bore

borne

565

beat

beat

beaten, (beat)

562

become

became

become

561

begin

began, (begun)

begun

570

behold <literary>

beheld

beheld

554

bend

bent

bent

553

bet

bet, betted

bet, betted

551

bid

bid, bade

bid, bidden

551

bind

bound

bound

558

bite

bit

bitten, (bit)

567

bleed

bled

bled

554

blow

blew

blown

566

break

broke

broken

564

breed

bred

bred

554

bring

brought

brought

557

broadcast

broadcast

broadcast

551

browbeat

browbeat

browbeaten

562

build

built

built

553

burn

burned, burnt

burned, burnt

552

burst

burst

burst

551

bust <casual>

bust, busted

bust, busted

551

buy

bought

bought

557

cast

cast

cast

551

catch

caught

caught

557

choose

chose

chosen

564

cleave

cleaved, clove, cleft

cleaved, cloven, cleft

571

cling

clung

clung

556

come

came

come

561

cost

cost

cost

551

creep

crept

crept

555

cut

cut

cut

551

deal

dealt

dealt

555

deepfreeze

deepfroze

deepfrozen

564

dig

dug

dug

556

dive

dived, dove <AmE>

dived

571

do

did

done

571

draw

drew

drawn

571

dream

dreamt, dreamed

dreamt, dreamed

555

drink

drank

drunk

570

drive

drove

driven

569

dwell

dwelled, dwelt

dwelled, dwelt

552

eat

ate

eaten

571

fall

fell

fallen

571

feed

fed

fed

554

feel

felt

felt

555

fight

fought

fought

557

find

found

found

558

fit

fitted, <AmE> also: fit

fitted, <AmE> also: fit

551

flee

fled

fled

554

fling

flung

flung

556

fly

flew

flown

571

forbid

forbad(e)

forbidden, (forbid)

571

forecast

forecast

forecast

551

foresee

foresaw

foreseen

571

foretell

foretold

foretold

560

forget

forgot

forgotten, (forgot)

571

forgive

forgave

forgiven

571

freeze

froze

frozen

564

get

got

got, gotten <AmE>

559

give

gave

given

571

go

went

gone

571

grind

ground

ground

558

grow

grew

grown

566

hamstring

hamstrung

hamstrung

556

hang

hung, (hanged)

hung, (hanged)

556

have

had

had

562

hear

heard

heard

562

hew

hewed

hewn, hewed

563

hide

hid

hidden, (hid)

567

hit

hit

hit

551

hold

held

held

554

hurt

hurt

hurt

551

input

input, inputted

input, inputted

551

keep

kept

kept

555

kneel

knelt, kneeled

knelt, kneeled

555

knit

knit, knitted

knit, knitted

551

know

knew

known

566

lay

laid

laid

562

lead

led

led

554

lean

leant, leaned

leant, leaned

555

leap

leapt, leaped

leapt, leaped

555

learn

learned, learnt

learned, learnt

552

leave

left

left

555

lend

lent

lent

553

let

let

let

551

lie

lay

lain

571

light

lit, lighted

lit, lighted

562

lose

lost

lost

559

make

made

made

562

mean

meant

meant

555

meet

met

met

555

miscast

miscast

miscast

551

mishear

misheard

misheard

562

mislead

misled

misled

554

misspell

misspelled, misspelt

misspelled, misspelt

552

mistake

mistook

mistaken

568

misunderstand

misunderstood

misunderstood

562

mow

mowed

mown, mowed

563

offset

offset

offset

551

outbid

outbid

outbid

551

outdo

outdid

outdone

571

outgrow

outgrew

outgrown

566

outrun

outran

outrun

561

overcome

overcame

overcome

561

overdo

overdid

overdone

571

overeat

overate

overeaten

571

overfeed

overfed

overfed

554

overhear

overheard

overheard

562

overrun

overran

overrun

561

oversee

oversaw

overseen

571

oversleep

overslept

overslept

555

overtake

overtook

overtaken

568

overthrow

overthrew

overthrown

566

pay

paid

paid

562

put

put

put

551

quit

quit, quitted

quit, quitted

551

read

read

read

554

rebuild

rebuilt

rebuilt

553

recast

recast

recast

551

redo

redid

redone

571

remake

remade

remade

562

rend

rent

rent

553

reread

reread

reread

554

rerun

reran

rerun

561

resell

resold

resold

560

reset

reset

reset

551

restring

restrung

restrung

556

retell

retold

retold

560

rewind

rewound

rewound

558

rewrite

rewrote

rewritten

569

rid

rid, ridded

rid, ridded

551

ride

rode

ridden

569

ring

rang, rung

rung

570

rise

rose

risen

569

run

ran

run

561

saw

sawed

sawn, sawed

563

say

said

said

562

see

saw

seen

571

seek

sought

sought

557

sell

sold

sold

560

send

sent

sent

553

set

set

set

551

sew

sewed

sewn, sewed

563

shake

shook

shaken

568

shear

sheared

shorn, sheared

571

shed

shed

shed

551

shine

shone, (shined)

shone, (shined)

559

shit <taboo>

shit, shat

shit

551

shoot

shot

shot

559

show

showed

shown, (showed)

563

shrink

shrank, shrunk

shrunk

570

shut

shut

shut

551

sing

sang, sung

sung

570

sink

sank, sunk

sunk

570

sit

sat

sat

562

slay

slew

slain

571

sleep

slept

slept

555

slide

slid

slid

562

sling

slung

slung

556

slink

slunk

slunk

556

slit

slit

slit

551

smell

smelled, smelt

smelled, smelt

552

sow

sowed

sown, sowed

563

speak

spoke

spoken

564

speed

sped, speeded

sped, speeded

554

spell

spelled, spelt

spelled, spelt

552

spend

spent

spent

553

spill

spilled, spilt

spilled, spilt

552

spin

spun, span

spun

556

spit

spat, spit

spat, spit

562

split

split

split

551

spoil

spoiled, spoilt

spoiled, spoilt

552

spread

spread

spread

551

spring

sprang, sprung

sprung

570

stand

stood

stood

562

steal

stole

stolen

564

stick

stuck

stuck

556

sting

stung

stung

556

stink

stank, stunk

stunk

570

stride

strode

stridden, strode

569

strike

struck

struck

556

string

strung

strung

556

strive

strove, strived

striven, strived

569

swear

swore

sworn

565

sweat

sweat, sweated

sweat, sweated

551

sweep

swept

swept

555

swell

swelled

swollen, swelled

563

swim

swam, swum

swum

570

swing

swung

swung

556

take

took

taken

568

teach

taught

taught

557

tear

tore

torn

565

tell

told

told

560

think

thought

thought

557

throw

threw

thrown

566

thrust

thrust

thrust

551

tread

trod

trodden, (trod)

571

typeset

typeset

typeset

551

unbend

unbent

unbent

553

unbind

unbound

unbound

558

undergo

underwent

undergone

571

understand

understood

understood

562

undertake

undertook

undertaken

568

underwrite

underwrote

underwritten

569

undo

undid

undone

571

unmake

unmade

unmade

562

unwind

unwound

unwound

558

uphold

upheld

upheld

554

upset

upset

upset

551

wake

woke, waked

woken, waked

564

wear

wore

worn

565

weave

wove

woven

564

wed

wed, wedded

wed, wedded

551

weep

wept

wept

555

wet

wet, wetted

wet, wetted

551

win

won

won

556

wind

wound

wound

558

withdraw

withdrew

withdrawn

571

withhold

withheld

withheld

554

withstand

withstood

withstood

562

wring

wrung

wrung

556

write

wrote

written

569

Main verbs

(see CGEL 3.2–6)

The forms of main verbs

  573   There are two types of verbs: main verbs and auxiliary verbs (see 477–85). Main verbs are either regular (such as call, like, try) or irregular (such as buy, drink, set). ‘Regular’ means that we can state all the verb forms of an English verb once we know its base form. The base is the basic, uninflected form which is given as the entry form in dictionaries. The irregular verbs are listed in 550–72. A regular English verb, such as call, has the following four forms:

•  the base:

call

•  the -s form:

calls

•  the -ing form:

calling

•  the -ed form:

called

The vast majority of English verbs are regular. Furthermore, all new verbs that are coined or borrowed from other languages adopt this pattern. For example, a recently coined verb futurize (‘to implement plans based upon long-range forecasts of future developments’) will have the forms futurizes, futurizing, futurized.

  574   •  The -s form, also called the 3rd person singular present, is formed in <written> English by adding -s or -es to the base (see 702). In <spoken> English, the -s form is pronounced /ɪz/, /z/, or /s/.

base

-s form

press/pres/

presses/'presiz/

play/plei/

plays/pleiz/

help/help/

helps/helps/

The rules for the choice of these alternatives are stated in 664; on changes in spelling, for example try/tries, see 701. Exceptions: do /duk/ ∼ does /dcz/, say /see/ ∼ says /sez/.

•  The -ing form, or the present participle, is formed by adding -ing to the base of both regular and irregular verbs. (On changes in spelling, as in begbegging, see 703.)

base

-ing form

press

pressing

play

playing

help

helping

•  The -ed form of regular verbs is formed by adding -ed to the base. It corresponds to two forms (past and past participle) of many irregular verbs. Compare:

Images

On the choice of these pronunciations, see 665. On changes in spelling, as in pat ∼ patted, see 703.

The uses of the verb forms

  575   The base form is used

•  in all persons of the present tense except the 3rd person singular:

I/you/we/they/the students, etc. like fast food.

•  in the imperative (see 497):

Look what you’ve done!

•  in the infinitive, which may be the bare infinitive (do) or the to-infinitive (to do):

We’ll tell them what to do and then let them do it.

•  in the productive subjunctive (see 706):

The committee recommends that these new techniques be implemented at once.

  576   The -s form is used in the 3rd person singular of the present tense (see 741), which is the only person where the base form is not used:

He/She/The student/Everybody wants to have a good time, that’s all.

  577   The -ed form is used for both the past tense and the past participle, whereas these are distinct (e.g. gavegiven) for many irregular verbs (see 550).

•  Unlike the present tense, the past tense has only one form in all persons:

I/You/She/We/They/The students/Everybody wanted to have a good time.

•  The past participle is used with a form of have to form the perfect aspect (see 739):

Ms Johnson has asked me to contact you.

•  The past participle is used with a form of be to form the passive (see 613):

The security guard was given special instructions.

The plans have been changed.

•  The past participle is used to form -ed participle clauses (see 493):

The codes were found hidden in the arrested spy’s computer.

I also heard it mentioned by somebody else.

•  The past participle can also become an adjective and can modify a noun:

His injured back puts a stop to his career as an athlete.

The -ing form is used

  578   •  to form the progressive (see 739):

Laura is working on a PhD thesis in information science.

•  to form -ing participle clauses (see 493):

It’s a trick I learned while recovering from the mumps.

•  The -ing form can also become an adjective and can modify a noun (see 444):

It was a fascinating performance.

•  The -ing form can also become a noun describing an action or state:

The telling of stories is an important tradition in many societies.

Nationality words

(see CGEL 5.55–57, 7.25)

  579   When speaking about English people in general we can say either English people or the English with the definite article and an adjective as head (see 448):

English people/ The English have managed to hold on to their madrigal tradition better than anyone else.

[1]

When referring to some particular English persons we can only use the first form:

The English people I met at the conference were all doctors.

[2]

We call the first general type of reference, as in [1], generic reference, and the second specific type, as in [2], specific reference. Some nationality words can be used for both generic and specific reference (see 90):

The Australians are said to like the outdoors. [Australians in general]

The Australians I know don’t particularly like the outdoors. [some specific Australians]

Nationality words

  580   The following table shows the names of some countries, continents etc. and their corresponding adjectives and nouns (with specific and generic reference).

Images

Images

Notes

[a]

Arab is the racial and political term (the Arab nations, etc.). Arabic is used about the language and literature, as well as in Arabic numerals (as opposed to Roman numerals). Arabia and Arabian are associated with the geographical area of the Arabian peninsula (as in Saudi Arabia).

[b]

Nouns ending in -man, -men refer to males. Although corresponding female nouns exist (e.g. a Frenchwoman, two Dutchwomen), these are rather rare. There is now a tendency to avoid such gender-linked terms which could seem <impolite>. Instead, many people prefer to use expressions such as French people instead of Frenchmen, a Dutch woman or a Dutch lady instead of a Dutchwoman. The avoidance of nationality nouns also extends to some other nouns such as Spaniard and Pole which, although they do not signal gender, in practice are taken to refer to males rather than females. Instead, Spanish people and Polish people can be used.

[c]

Brit is a <colloquial> variant of Briton, which is not very common.

[d]

The inhabitants of Scotland themselves prefer Scots (as in Scots law) and Scottish, which denotes nationality and geographical areas (Scottish universities, the Scottish Highlands) to Scotch, which is commonly used in such expressions as Scotch terrier and Scotch whisky.

Negation

(see CGEL 10.54–70)

Not-negation: What he says doesn’t make sense.

  581   To make a finite clause negative, place not immediately after the operator (see 609). In <informal> English not is contracted to n’t and tagged on to the previous word:

Positive clause

Negative clause

The conditions are satisfied by the applicant.

∼ The conditions are not satisfied by the applicant.

I have told the students.

∼ I have not (haven’t) told the students.

In these examples, the positive clause contains an auxiliary (be, have) that can serve as operator (i.e. first auxiliary in a verb phrase). When there is no such operator present, the auxiliary do has to be introduced as operator. This is called the do-construction or do-support (see 611). Like modal auxiliaries, do is followed by the bare infinitive:

Positive clause

Negative clause

Sam and Eva like computer games.

∼ Sam and Eva do not (don’t) like computer games.

What Robert says makes sense.

∼ What Robert says does not (doesn’t) make sense.

(On the constructions with be and have as main verbs in negative sentences and on the forms of the modal auxiliaries, see 480–5.)

Contracted negation: She won’t mind.

  582   Besides the <informal> contracted negative n’t there are <informal> contracted verb forms ’s for is, ’re for are, ’ll for will, etc. (see 478). The contracted verb forms can be tagged on to the subject (if it is a pronoun or short noun): he’ll, you’re, Herb’s. Consequently, there are two forms of <informal> negation possible, one with a contracted verb, and the other with a contracted negative:

Contracted verb + full form of not

Full form of verb + contracted negative

It’s not their fault.

∼ It isn’t their fault.

You’ve not read the book, have you?

∼ You haven’t read the book, have you?

She’ll not mind if you stay.

∼ She won’t mind if you stay.

They’re not in school today.

∼ They aren’t in school today.

Both sets of contracted forms are used in <informal> English but, in general, especially with a long noun as subject, the n’t form is more likely:

The children aren’t in school today.

In <formal> English, the full forms are used for both verb and negative: It is not their fault, etc. In questions with inversion, not can be placed either after the auxiliary in its contracted form n’t, or after the subject in its full form not:

Haven’t you written to the publishers? <informal>

∼ Have you not written to the publishers? <formal>

Negative pronouns and determiners: There’s no time left.

  583   Any-words (see 697) are frequently used after negation. Compare:

We have some milk left. ∼ We haven’t any milk left.

Instead of the construction with not-negation and any we may equally well use no:

We haven’t any milk left. ∼ We have no milk left.

No is a negative determiner (see 522). In English there are a number of negative expressions with different functions, as can be seen in the table opposite. As the table shows, none can be treated as either singular or plural as far as concord is concerned (see 513):

None of them has arrived. OR None of them have arrived.

Images

Other negative words: Neither of them is correct.

  584   Besides no and none there are other negative words beginning with n, such as neither, never, nowhere:

neither (determiner, pronoun, adverb of addition, see 234): You’ve given two answers. Neither is correct.

neither … nor (coordinating conjunction, see 520): Neither the government nor the market can be blamed for the present economic situation.

never (adverb of time-when or frequency): I never believed those rumours.

nowhere (adverb of place): This tradition exists nowhere else in Africa.

Also, there are certain words which are negative in meaning and behaviour although they do not appear negative in form:

barely (‘almost … not’): The dormitories could barely house one hundred students.

few (‘not many’): Some people work very hard but there seem to be few of them left.

hardly (‘almost not’): There is hardly any butter left. (‘almost no butter’)

little (‘not much’): Nowadays, Ian seems to be doing very little research.

rarely (‘almost never’): We now know that things rarely ever work out in such a cut-and-dried fashion.

scarcely (‘almost not, almost nothing’): There was scarcely anything Rachel did that did not fascinate me.

seldom (‘not often’) <rather formal>: Nature seldom offers such a brilliant spectacle as a solar eclipse.

The effect of negative words: Lucy never seems to care, does she?

  585   The usual effect of negative words is to make the whole clause in which they occur negative (but see 261). Negative clauses have certain characteristics:

•  After a negative item there are normally any-words instead of some-words (see 697).

I had some doubts about his ability. [positive clause]

∼ I didn’t have any doubts about his ability. [negative clause = ‘I had no doubts about his ability.’]

I seldom get any sleep after the baby wakes up.

I’ve spoken to hardly anyone who disagrees with me on this point.

•  Negative words are followed by positive rather than negative tag-questions (see 684):

image

•  A negative item placed at the beginning of a clause brings about the inversion of subject and operator, i.e. the order is operator + subject:

Rarely in American history has there been a political campaign that clarified issues less.

Never was a greater fuss made about any man than about Lord Byron.

Only after a long argument did the committee agree to our plan.

[1]

There is no inversion when the negative is part of the subject:

No one appears to have noticed the escape.

The inverted construction, as in [1], sounds rather <elevated> and <rhetorical> (see 417). If the negative item is not placed at the beginning of the clause, the word order is regular (subject + verb), and there is no do-construction (see 611). Both [1a], [1b] are more common than [1]:

∼ The committee agreed to our plan only after a long argument.

[1a]

∼ It was only after a long argument that the committee agreed to our plan.

[1b]

Not in phrases and in non-finite clauses

  586   Sometimes the negative word not is attached to a noun phrase instead of the verb phrase. There is no inversion when the negated noun phrase is subject:

This artist likes big cities. Not all her paintings, however, are of cities.

But inversion and the do-construction are required when the negated and front-placed noun phrase is object:

Not a single painting did she manage to sell.

To make non-finite clauses negative (see 493), we place the negative word not before the verb phrase, including to before the infinitive:

We had no opinions about Kafka, not having read him.

The motorist was on probation and under court order not to drive.

The important thing now is not to mourn the past but to look ahead.

Transferred negation: I don’t believe we’ve met.

  587   We expect to find the negative item in the clause it negates. But instead of saying

I believe we haven’t met.

[1]

we may say

I don’t believe we’ve met.

[2]

In [2] not has been transferred from the subclause to the main clause. This construction, which is called transferred negation, occurs after verbs like believe, suppose, and think:

I don’t suppose anybody will notice the improvement.

∼ I suppose nobody will notice the improvement.

Charlotte doesn’t think it’s very likely to happen again.

∼ Charlotte thinks it’s not very likely to happen again.

Nominal clauses

(see CGEL 15.3–16)

  588   Nominal clauses function like noun phrases (see 595). This means that nominal clauses may be subject, object, complement, or prepositional complement.

•  Nominal clause as subject:

Whether I pass the test or not does not matter very much.

∼ It doesn’t matter very much whether I pass the test or not. [it-construction, see 542]

•  Nominal clause as object:

I don’t know whether we really need a new car.

•  Nominal clause as complement:

What our friends worry about is whether to stay here or move elsewhere.

•  Nominal clause as prepositional complement:

This raises the question as to whether we should abandon the plan.

Nominal clauses can also occasionally take an appositive function similar to that of a noun phrase in apposition (see 470):

Our latest prediction, that Norway would win the match, surprised everybody.

Let us know your college address, i.e. where you live during the term.

There are five main types of nominal clause, which will be discussed in the following sections:

•  that-clauses (see 589)

•  interrogative subclauses (see 590)

•   nominal relative clauses (see 592)

•   nominal to-infinitive clauses (see 593)

•   nominal -ing clauses (see 594)

That-clauses: I’m sure that she’ll manage somehow.

  589   That-clauses can occur as subject, direct object, subject complement or adjective complement.

•   That-clause as subject: That we’re still alive is sheer luck.

•   That-clause as direct object: No one can deny that films and TV influence the pattern of public behaviour.

•   That-clause as subject complement: The assumption is that things will improve.

•   That-clause as complement of an adjective: One can’t be sure that this finding is important.

In <informal> use, that is often omitted when the that-clause is object, complement or postponed subject (see 542):

I knew I was wrong. [object]

I’m sure we’ll manage somehow. [complement]

It’s a pity you have to leave so soon. [postponed subject]

Wh-interrogative subclauses: Nobody seems to know what to do.

  590   Interrogative subclauses are introduced by wh-interrogative words, including how (see 536). They can function as subject, direct object, subject complement or adjective complement.

•  Wh-interrogative subclause as subject: How the book will sell largely depends on its author.

•  Wh-interrogative subclause as direct object: I don’t know how Eve managed to do it.

•  Wh-interrogative subclause as subject complement: This is how John described the accident.

•  Wh-interrogative subclause as complement of an adjective: I wasn’t certain whose house we were in.

Wh-clauses can have all the functions of that-clauses. In addition, wh-clauses can be prepositional complement (which that-clauses cannot be):

None of us were consulted about who should have the job.

When the wh-element is a prepositional complement, the preposition can be in either initial position <formal> or final position <informal>:

Thomas couldn’t remember on which shelf he kept the book. <formal>

∼ Thomas couldn’t remember which shelf he kept the book on. <informal>

An infinitive wh-clause can be formed with all wh-words except why:

Nobody knew what to do. (‘what they were supposed to do’)

They discussed where to go. (‘where they should go’)

Charlie explained to me how to start the motor. (‘how one should start the motor’)

Yes-no interrogative subclauses: She wondered whether Stan would call.

  591   Yes-no interrogative subclauses are formed with if or whether:

Olivia wondered if/whether Stan would call.

Do you know if/whether the shops are open today?

The alternative question (see 242) has if/whether … or:

Do you know if/whether the shops are open or not?

Only whether can be directly followed by or not:

Whether or not Wally lost his job was no concern of mine.

Nominal relative clauses:

What we need is something to get warm.

  592   Nominal relative clauses are also introduced by different wh-words. They have the same functions as noun phrases:

•  Nominal relative clause as subject:

What we need is something to get warm. (‘the thing that we need …’)

Whoever owns this boat must be rich. (‘the person who owns …’)

•  Nominal relative clause as direct object:

I want to see whoever deals with complaints. (‘the person that …’)

You’ll find what you need in this cupboard. (‘the things that …’)

I can go into a shop and buy whatever is there.

•  Nominal relative clause as subject complement:

Home is where you were born, reared, went to school and, most particularly, where grandma is.

•  Nominal relative clause as object complement:

You can call me what(ever) names you like.

•   Nominal relative clause as complement of a preposition:

You should vote for which (ever) candidate you like the best.

Nominal relative clauses are introduced by a wh-determiner or wh-pronoun (see 523), as in this proverb:

Whoever laughs last, laughs longest.

This sentence can also be put in the form:

Those who laugh last, laugh longest.

Whoever is here replaced by the demonstrative pronoun those and the relative pronoun who. Who alone hardly occurs in this nominal relative function.

As we see above, a nominal relative clause can be introduced by a wh-word ending in -ever, e.g. whatever. These words have general or inclusive meaning. Thus the pronoun whatever means roughly ‘anything which’. Other expressions containing relative clauses can be used instead, such as anyone who, the person who instead of whoever:

Whoever told you that was lying.

Anyone who told you that was lying.

The person who told you that was lying.

Nominal to-infinitive clauses: I was glad to be able to help.

  593   Nominal to-infinitive clauses have a number of different functions in the clause:

•  Nominal to-infinitive clause as subject:

To say there is no afterlife would mean a rejection of religion.

•  Nominal to-infinitive clause as direct object:

We want everyone to be happy.

•  Nominal to-infinitive clause as subject complement:

The minister’s first duty will be to stop inflation.

•  Nominal to-infinitive clause as complement of an adjective:

I was very glad to help in this way.

The subject of a to-infinitive is normally introduced by for. A pronoun subject here has the objective form:

What I wanted was for them to advance me the money.

Nominal -ing clauses:

I don’t like people telling me how to do things.

  594   Nominal -ing participle clauses have the same range of functions as nominal to-infinitive clauses. In addition, they can act as complement of a preposition:

•  Nominal -ing participle clause as subject:

Telling stories was one thing my friend was well-known for.

•  Nominal -ing participle clause as direct object:

I don’t mind people telling me how to do things better.

•   Nominal -ing participle clause as subject complement:

What William likes best is playing practical jokes.

•  Nominal -ing participle clause as prepositional complement:

Jessica sparked off the opposition by telling a television audience it was gossip.

Anna is quite capable of telling her employers where they are wrong.

When the -ing clause has a subject, there is sometimes a choice between two constructions. The genitive case of nouns and the possessive form of pronouns are typical of <formal> style:

Winston was surprised at his family’s reacting so sharply. <formal>

Winston was surprised at their reacting so sharply. <formal>

In <informal> style, the uninflected form of nouns and the objective case of personal pronouns are more common:

Winston was surprised at his family reacting so sharply. <informal>

Winston was surprised at them reacting so sharply. <informal>

Noun phrases

(see CGEL Chapter 17)

  595   A noun phrase is called a noun phrase because the word which is its head (i.e. main part) is typically a noun. In the following two sentences there are several noun phrases [printed in italics]:

[On Tuesday] [a German passenger liner] rescued [the crew of a trawler]. [It] found [them] drifting [on a life raft] after [they] had abandoned [a sinking ship].

Here are the noun phrases with a description of their grammatical functions:

1. Tuesday is a prepositional complement (see 654) in the prepositional phrase On Tuesday, which functions as a time-when adverbial.

2. a German passenger liner is the subject of the first sentence.

3. the crew of a trawler is the object. This noun phrase contains another noun phrase, a trawler, which is prepositional complement in the prepositional phrase of a trawler.

4. It is a personal pronoun referring to a German passenger liner and functioning as the subject of the second sentence.

5. them is a plural personal pronoun referring to the crew of a trawler. The reason why the plural them can refer to the singular crew is that this is a group noun (see 510).

6. a life raft is the prepositional complement in the prepositional phrase on a life raft, which functions as a place adverbial.

7. they is a plural personal pronoun referring to the crew of a trawler and functioning as subject of the subclause beginning with after.

8. a sinking ship functions as the object of had abandoned.

  596   A head noun can be accompanied by determiners (a, the, his, etc.) and one or more modifiers: passenger modifies liner and German modifies passenger liner. This type of modification is called premodification because the modifiers stand before the head noun. When there is modification after the head, it is called postmodification. An example of this is in the crew of a trawler, where the head crew is postmodified by the prepositional phrase of a trawler. Often there exists a choice between the two types of modification: we could also say the trawler’s crew, using premodification (see 650) instead of the crew of a trawler, using postmodification (see 641).

Pronouns such as it and them typically have a function equivalent to that of a whole noun phrase. In this book, in fact, we regard pronouns as the heads (and often the only words) of noun phrases. The structure of the English noun phrase can be written:

images

The brackets indicate that the determiners and modifiers can be left out. But determiners are more essential to noun phrase structure than modifiers. The only situation in which a noun phrase has no expressed determiner is where it has a ‘zero article’ (see 473). Here are some examples of noun phrases:

Images

The different parts of noun phrase structure are treated separately in this part of the grammar: determiners in 522, premodifiers in 650 and post-modifiers in 641. Apart from nouns, pronouns (see 661) and adjectives (see 448) may act as head of a noun phrase.

Number

(see CGEL 5.73–103)

Singular and plural number: this problem ∼ those problems

  597   In English, there is singular number (denoting ‘one’) and plural number (denoting ‘more than one’). Number is a feature of nouns (book/books), demonstrative pronouns (this/these, see 521), and personal pronouns (she/ they, see 619). It is also shown through concord with singular or plural forms of the verb (see 575).

The regular plural of nouns is formed by adding -s or -es to the singular (see 635).

•  Count nouns can be singular or plural (see 58), as in:

one daughter ∼ two daughters

a fast train ∼ fast trains

this problem ∼ these problems

But many nouns do not have plural number. They include mass nouns (also called non-count nouns or uncountables) and proper nouns (also called names).

•  Mass nouns such as the following are singular only (see more examples in 62 and 68): advertising, advice, applause, cash, evidence, food, furniture, garbage, homework, hospitality, information, knowledge, luggage, machinery, money, music, pollution, refuse, rubbish, traffic, trash, waste, weather:

Our advertising is mainly concentrated on the large national newspapers.

People who distrust credit cards say ‘Cash is King.’

There is hardly any evidence against her.

Our city is known for its fine food, good music and colourful hospitality.

This information is of course confidential.

Is this your money? – No, it’s my sister’s.

•  Proper nouns such as Margaret, Stratford, Mars, the Mississippi, Broadway are also singular only:

The Mississippi River is 2,350 miles from mouth to source.

For some exceptions, such as the Wilsons (= the Wilson family), the West Indies, see 671.

Singular nouns ending in -s: What’s the big news?

  598   There are some nouns which require special comment, such as singular nouns ending in -s.

•  News is always singular:

That’s good news!

Instead of being depressed by this news, she was actually relieved by it.

•  Subject names in -ics are singular: e.g. classics (‘classical languages’), linguistics, mathematics, phonetics, statistics:

Statistics is not as difficult as some people think.

Here, statistics = ‘the science of using information discovered from studying numbers’. But when statistics = ‘figures’ it is treated as a plural:

The official statistics show that 6 per cent of the population are unemployed.

•  Names of games ending in -s are singular, e.g. billiards, darts, dominoes, fives, ninepins:

Billiards is my favourite game.

•   Proper nouns ending in -s are singular, e.g. Algiers, Athens, Brussels, Flanders, Marseilles, Naples, Wales. The United Nations (the UN) and the United States of America (the USA) have a singular verb when considered as single units:

The United States has appointed a new ambassador to Japan.

•  The names of some diseases ending in -s are usually treated as singular, e.g. measles, German measles, mumps, rickets, shingles. Similarly AIDS (which is an acronym of ‘acquired immune deficiency syndrome’):

AIDS is an illness which destroys the natural system of protection that the body has acquired against disease.

Plural-only nouns: How much are those sunglasses?

  599   There are some nouns which occur only in the plural (sometimes only in certain senses), for example people, police, trousers.

•  People as the plural of person:

There are too many people in here.

But people has the plural peoples when it is a group noun, in the sense of ‘men and women of a particular country, race’, etc.:

The peoples of Central Asia speak many different languages.

This country has been settled by peoples of many heritages.

•  Police:

The police have dropped the case.

Several police were injured.

But ‘a member of the police force’ = policeman, police officer: ‘Why don’t you ask a policeman?’

•  Cattle:

Holstein cattle aren’t a beef breed and they are rarely seen on a ranch.

  600   Some nouns denoting tools or instruments consisting of two equal parts joined together are treated as plural:

[A] Have you seen my scissors? [B] Here they are.

To express one or more items of such nouns we can use a pair of, two pairs of:

I’d like a pair of scissors, please.

Other nouns that behave like scissors: binoculars, glasses, pincers, pliers, tongs, scales [for weighing], shears, tweezers.

•   Nouns for articles of dress consisting of two parts are also treated as plural:

[A] Where are my trousers? [B] They are in the bedroom where you put them.

But such plural nouns can be ‘turned into’ ordinary count nouns by means of a pair of or pairs of:

I need to buy a new pair of trousers.

How many pairs of blue jeans do you have?

Other nouns that behave like trousers are: briefs, jeans, pants, pajamas <AmE>, pyjamas <BrE>, shorts, slacks, tights, trunks:

My pants were soaking wet.

Amy was dressed in a tight-fitting pair of slacks.

  601   There are many nouns which, in a given sense, only occur in the plural, for example contents (as in the contents of a book, the contents of a cupboard, a list of contents, etc.):

The contents of this 195-page document are not known to many.

The minister has to work through the contents of a bulging briefcase in the evenings.

The singular form content denotes what is contained by a text or by a particular substance:

The content of a text frequently influences its style.

The average nickel content of the alloy is about 2.5 per cent.

Here are some other examples of plural-only, or mainly plural, nouns:

arms (‘weapons’): Arms were distributed widely among the civilian population.

ashes: After the fire many a ranch-house lay as a square of blackened ashes. (BUT: cigarette ash)

funds (‘money’): Our funds are too scarce to permit this plan. (BUT: a fund ‘a source of money’: The family set up a fund for medical research.)

oats: The oats were sown early this year. (BUT: corn, barley are singular.)

odds: The odds are not very strongly in favour of a tax cut.

outskirts: They met in a place on the outskirts of the city.

premises (‘building’): The butler discovered the residential premises were on fire.

quarters, headquarters: The proposal aroused violent opposition in some quarters. [‘circles’] (BUT: the third quarter of the year 2002 = ‘three-month period’)

spirits (‘mood’): She got home in high spirits, relaxed and smiling. (BUT: These people have retained their pioneering spirit.)

stairs: She was about to mount a wide flight of marble stairs. steps: They stood on the steps of the ambassador’s home. surroundings: The surroundings of their house are rather unattractive. thanks: My warmest thanks are due to your organization.

To make thanks singular one can use expressions like these:

A vote of thanks was proposed to the retiring manager. <formal>

And now, let’s give a big thank-you to our hostess! <informal>

Numerals

(see CGEL 6.63–69)

Cardinals and ordinals

  602   The cardinal numerals (one, two, three, etc.) and the ordinal numerals (first, second, third, etc.) are shown in the following list. The ordinals are normally preceded by another determiner, usually the definite article (see 525):

image

Numerals can be used either as pronouns [1], or as determiners [2]. Cardinal numerals also function as nouns, when they name a particular number, e.g. (playing with dice):

You need a six or two threes to win the game.

Images

In English texts, alphabetic forms are considerably more common than digit forms for numerals lower than ten (one, two, threeten). Digit forms are more common than alphabetic forms for numerals over ten (11, 12, 13, etc).

0 = zero, nought, naught, oh, nil, nothing, love

  603   The numeral 0 is spoken or written out in different ways: zero, nought, naught, oh, nil, nothing, and love.

•   Zero images the most common alphabetical form referring to the numeral 0, is used especially in mathematics and for temperature (see 606):

This correlation is not significantly different from zero.

Her blood pressure was down to zero.

The temperature dropped and stood at zero in the daytime.

•  Nought images || naught images occurs chiefly as the name of the numeral 0:

To write ‘a million’ in figures, you need a one followed by six noughts || naughts.

•  Read as /oʊ/, sometimes written oh, used for example in telephone and fax numbers. In <AmE> telephone numbers are more often read as ‘zero’ than ‘oh’:

Dial 7050 [‘seven oh five oh’] and ask for extension 90. [‘nine oh’] <esp BrE>

Who used to play Agent 007? [‘double oh seven’]

Flight 105 [‘one oh five’]

•  Nil or nothing is used in contexts such as these (especially football scores):

The visitors won 4–0. [‘four nil, four nothing, four to nothing’, see 606 below]

Now the party’s influence was reduced to nil.

The training promises to be arduous and the pay will be nil.

•  Love is used in tennis, table tennis, badminton and squash:

The champion leads by 30–0. (‘thirty love’)

In general use, zero is replaced by the negative determiner no or the pronoun none:

There were no survivors from the air disaster.

None of the passengers or crew survived.

Hundred, thousand, million, billion

  604   One or a must be used with hundred, thousand, million and billion when they are spoken or written out:

100

one hundred

OR a hundred

1,000

one thousand

OR a thousand

1,000,000

one million OR

a million

1,000,000,000

one billion OR a billion

OR one thousand million

These numerals have the singular form following both singular and plural numbers or quantifiers. But all four have the -s plural when they denote an indefinite number:

image

Fractions, decimals, superscripts, etc.

  605   Fractions, decimals, superscripts, etc. are written and read out as follows:

Fractions

images

(a) half: They stayed (for) half an hour. OR They stayed for a half hour

images

a quarter: They stayed (for) a quarter of an hour

images

a/one tenth: a tenth of the population

images

three quarters or three fourths: three quarters of an hour

images

one and a half: one and a half hours, an hour and a half

images

three and two fifths: three and two fifths inches

images

three over five six eight [in mathematics]

Decimals

0.9

nought point nine <esp BrE> OR zero point nine <esp AmE>

2.5

two point five

3.14

three point one four

Superscripts

102

ten squared

103

ten cubed

104

ten to the power of four

Arithmetic

4 + 4 = 8

four plus four equals eight OR four and four makes/is eight

5 × 2 = 10

five multiplied by two equals ten OR five times two makes/is ten

6 ÷ 2 = 3

six divided by two equals/makes/is three

Temperatures

  606   −15°C      fifteen (degrees) below (zero) OR minus fifteen (degrees Celsius)

85°F      eighty-five (degrees Fahrenheit)

Currency

25c

twenty-five cents OR a quarter

$4.75

four dollars seventy-five OR four seventy-five

20p

twenty pence OR twenty pimages.

£9.95

nine pounds ninety-five (pence) OR nine ninety-five

€52.70

fifty-two euros (and) seventy cents

Sports scores

5–1

five to one OR five one

3–0

three to nil OR three nil OR three (to) nothing <BrE> OR three (to) zero OR three blank <AmE>

2–2

two all OR two two OR <AmE> two up (i.e. it’s a tie or a draw)

Approximate numbers

Approximate numbers are specified in numerous ways, such as these:

approximately (about, around, roughly) $1,500

some forty books

fifty or so people

about elevenish ∼ about eleven o’clock

a fiftyish woman ∼ a woman about fifty years of age

300-odd demonstrators ∼ slightly over 300 demonstrators

Dates and times of the clock

Years

  607  

1996

(the year) nineteen ninety-six OR (the year) nineteen hundred and ninety-six <more formal>

 

2000

the year two thousand

 

2010

(the year) two thousand (and) ten OR (the year) twenty ten

Decades

Decades can be written: the 1990s OR the 90s OR the ’90s. They are also written, and read out, as the nineteen nineties OR the nineties.

The plural twenties denotes an age or a period between 20 and 29; similarly with thirties (30–39), forties (40–49), etc.:

He looked like a man in his early/mid/late forties.

Dates <written>:

Our daughter was born

on 18 August 2001. <esp. BrE>

on August 18, 2001. <esp. AmE>

on August 18th, 2001. <esp. AmE>

The alternative written forms are 18/8/01 (day + month) <in BrE> BUT 8/18/01 (month + day) <in AmE>.

Dates <spoken>:

Our daughter was born

on the eighteenth of August, two thousand (and) one.

on August the eighteenth, two thousand (and) one.

on August eighteenth, two thousand (and) one.

Times of the clock

Times of the clock are read out in full as follows:

Images

Objects

(see CGEL 10.7–8, 27–32, 16.25–67)

  608   The object of a clause can be a noun phrase (see 595):

Can you see that white boat over there?

But the object can also be a nominal clause (see 588):

Now we can see that too little has been spent on the environment.

The object usually refers to the person, thing, etc., affected by the action of the verb:

Anna kissed him gently on the cheek.

George parked his car outside an espresso bar.

The object normally follows the verb phrase. English typically has SVO order (subject + verb + object) in both main clauses and subclauses:

After the chairman announced the takeover bid, the stock exchange council banned dealings in the company’s shares.

But on variations of word order, see fronted topic (411), exclamations (528), wh-questions (683) and relative clauses (687).

The object of an active sentence can usually be turned into the subject of a passive sentence (see 613):

ACTIVE: A dog owner found little Nancy yesterday morning.

PASSIVE: Little Nancy was found yesterday morning (by a dog owner).

When a clause has two objects, the first is an indirect object and the second a direct object. The indirect object is typically personal, as in these examples: me, the patient.

‘Nobody gives [me] [flowers] anymore’, Georgina said.

Lucy bought [the patient] [fruit, meat and cheese].

The indirect object is often equivalent to a prepositional phrase with to:

Nobody gives [flowers] [to me] anymore.

or a prepositional phrase with for (see 730):

She bought [fruit, meat and cheese] [for the patient].

However, an alternative prepositional construction is not always possible, as in these sentences:

We all wish [you] [better health].

Isabelle leaned down and gave [John] [a real kiss].

Operators

(see CGEL 2.48–50, 3.21–30, 34, 37)

What is an operator?

  609   Auxiliary verbs have different meanings and functions in the verb phrase (see 735). But they have one important feature in common: they all occur before the main verb. When finite (see 737), they are placed first in the finite verb phrase. We call the first auxiliary of a verb phrase the operator. Compare the following interrogative sentences with the matching declarative ones (the operator is printed in bold):

Will she be back after the weekend?

∼ She will be back after the weekend.

Were they showing any comedy films?

∼ They were showing some comedy films.

Was he lecturing on English grammar?

∼ He was lecturing on English grammar.

Have I been asking too many questions?

∼ I have been asking too many questions.

Would a more radical decision have been possible?

∼ A more radical decision would have been possible.

In each question, the first auxiliary (operator) of the finite verb phrase is placed first, and isolated from the rest of the verb phrase, no matter how complex the phrase is.

Be acts like an operator even when it is a main verb, and so the term ‘operator’ will be used also in cases like this one:

Is she a good student?

In <BrE> also have sometimes acts like an operator even when it is a main verb:

Have you any money?

However, there is an alternative do-construction, which is used in both <AmE> and <BrE> (see 611):

Do you have any money?

Operators in interrogatives and negatives

  610   Operators are important in English because they are generally used in the construction of interrogative and negative sentences. In yes–no questions the operator stands before the subject. This is called inversion of subject and operator:

YOU have met the new students. [declarative]

Have you met the new students? [interrogative: yes–no question]

In negative statements the operator stands before not. In <informal> English, the auxiliary is combined with the negative contraction n’t (see 582):

I will not be going to the seminar tomorrow.

∼ I won’t be going to the seminar tomorrow.

Chris is not playing so well this season.

∼ Chris isn’t playing so well this season.

Chloe has not got the whole-hearted consent of her parents.

∼ Chloe hasn’t got the whole-hearted consent of her parents.

Adverbs with mid-position, such as always, never (see 458), usually take the same position as not, just after the operator:

Things will never be the same again.

That sort of attitude has always appealed to me.

Such adverbs are also found before the operator, especially for contrast:

image

The do-construction: Do you know the way?

  611   In a verb phrase which has no auxiliary verb there is no word that can act as operator, for example:

Connor knows the way.

You need some advice.

The delegates arrived yesterday.

In such cases, we have to introduce the special ‘dummy’ operator do in yes–no questions (see 682) and not-negation (see 581). This is called the do-construction or do-support. Do as operator is followed by the infinitive of the main verb:

YES–NO QUESTIONS

NOT-NEGATION

Does Connor know the way?

Connor doesn’t know the way.

Do you need any advice?

You don’t need any advice.

Did the delegates arrive yesterday?

The delegates didn’t arrive yesterday.

Other constructions with an operator

  612   Apart from yes–no questions and not-negatives, there are some other constructions which also require an operator, including the ‘dummy’ operator do. Such constructions are:

•  Emphatic sentences (see 300):

image

•   Tag questions (see 684):

image

•   Wh-questions where the wh-element is not the subject:

When did you come back from Spain?

[when = adverbial]

How long did Grace stay in Egypt?

[how long = adverbial]

What did she do so long in Athens?

[what = object]

Who did you want to speak to?

[who = prepositional complement]

But no operator and no do-construction are needed when the wh-element is subject:

Who is this in the picture?

Which guests are coming by train?

What took you so long?

Who met you at the airport?

(BUT: Who did you meet at the airport? [who = object])

•  Subject-operator inversion occurs also in statements when a negative expression is placed first in the sentence (see 417):

Only after a long delay did news of Livingstone’s fate reach the coast. <rather formal>

An it-type cleft sentence (see 496) would be more natural in most contexts:

It was only after a long delay that news of Livingstone’s fate reached the coast.

Passives

(see CGEL 3.63–78)

  613   The term passive is the name of verb phrases which contain the construction be + past participle (see 739): is accepted, has been shown, will be covered, might have been considered, etc. The passive is not very common in <informal speech> but a regular feature in <formal, especially scientific written> texts, as in the following extract from a paper on odontology (with passive verb phrases in italics):

It is generally accepted that, when it is exposed in the oral cavity, any natural or artificial solid surface will quickly be covered by thin organic films. It has been shown in several studies that these films contain material of salivary origin.

The opposite of passive is active. Here are some pairs of examples of different verb types to show the contrast between active clauses and their corresponding passive clauses:

Everyone rejected the bold idea.

∼ The bold idea was rejected (by everyone).

The ambulance crew gave the casualties first aid.

∼ The casualties were given first aid (by the ambulance crew).

Boat owners considered the bridge a menace to navigation.

∼ The bridge was considered a menace to navigation (by boat owners).

The committee asked Mr Pearson to become director of the institute.

∼ Mr Pearson was asked (by the committee) to become director of the institute.

Turning actives into passives

  614   To change an active clause into a passive clause:

1. Replace the active verb phrase by the matching passive one.

2. Make the object of the active clause the subject of the passive clause.

3. Make the subject of the active clause the agent of the passive clause. The agent is the noun phrase which occurs after the preposition by in the passive clause. The agent is an optional part of the passive construction: by + agent can usually be omitted altogether, as indicated by round brackets in the examples in 613.

These three changes can be pictured as follows:

images

  615   The effect of the change into the passive is to reverse the positions of the noun phrases acting as subject and object in the active sentence. With verbs like give, which can have two objects, it is usually the first object (the indirect object) that becomes subject of the passive clause:

The department gave [Mrs Barry] [no authority to take such a decision].

∼ [Mrs Barry] was given [no authority to take such a decision].

Our school did not give [science subjects] [enough time].

∼ [Science subjects] were not given [enough time].

But there is also another passive construction where the direct object is made subject and to is added before the object:

∼ [Enough time] was not given [to science subjects].

Most active sentences which have a noun phrase or pronoun as object can be made passive. However, a few verbs which take an object do not have a passive: they include have (as in I have a small car), and hold (as in This jug holds one pint). Also, the passive is sometimes not possible when the object is a clause.

Passives without agents: Nobody was injured in the crash.

  616   The by-phrase containing the agent of a passive clause (and corresponding to the subject in an active clause) is only required in specific cases. In fact, only about one out of five English passive clauses has an expressed agent. The passive is especially associated with <impersonal> style, such as scientific and official writing>. Here the question of who is the agent (i.e. who performs the action described by the verb) is often unimportant and need not be stated:

The question will be discussed at a meeting tomorrow.

The passive may be a convenient construction to choose also when we do not know who the performer of an action is:

A police officer was killed last night in a road accident.

The get-passive: I hope you didn’t get hurt.

  617   As we have seen in the examples given so far, the passive auxiliary is normally be. There is also a passive with get:

The boy got hurt on his way home from school.

It’s upsetting when a person gets punished for a crime they didn’t commit.

The get-passive is found in <informal> style, and normally in constructions without an agent.

Passives with prepositional verbs and non-finite verb phrases:

This matter will have to be dealt with.

  618   The passive also occurs with prepositional verbs (e.g. deal with, ask for, believe in, cater for, look at, stare at, talk about, wonder at; see 632). The prepositional object, i.e. the noun phrase following the preposition of the active sentence, then becomes the subject of the passive sentence:

The members also talked about other possibilities at the meeting.

∼ Other possibilities were also talked about at the meeting.

[1]

Someone will have to deal with this matter right away.

 

∼ This matter will have to be dealt with right away.

[2]

I just don’t like people staring at me.

 

∼ I just don’t like being stared at.

[3]

An improvement in relations between our countries is to be hoped for as a result of the conference.

[4]

As the examples [3] and [4] show, the passive can also occur in non-finite verb phrases. Compare:

I want everybody to understand this.

[active to-infinitive]

∼ I want this to be understood by everybody.

[passive to-infinitive]

Without anybody asking her, Joan did the job herself.

[active -ing clause]

∼ Without being asked, Joan did the job herself

[passive -ing clause]

Personal and reflexive pronouns

(see CGEL 6.15–31)

The range of forms

  619   Personal pronouns (e.g. she, they) and reflexive pronouns (e.g. herself, themselves) are related. Both distinguish between personal and non-personal gender and, within personal gender, between masculine and feminine (see 529):

 

 

Singular

Plural

1st person

I ∼ myself

we ∼ ourselves

2nd person

you ∼ yourself

you ∼ yourselves

3rd person

he ∼ himself she ∼ herself it ∼ itself

they ∼ themselves

 

For the 2nd person the same form is used in the singular and plural of personal and possessive pronouns (you, your, yours), but there is a separate plural of reflexive pronouns: yourself (singular) and yourselves (plural). We, the 1st person plural pronoun, denotes ‘I plus one or more others’ (see 97).

  620   Five personal pronouns have both subjective and objective forms:

I ∼ me, we ∼ us, he ∼ him, she ∼ her, they ∼ them (but you and it have only one form)

Some personal pronouns also have two genitive forms:

my ∼ mine, our ∼ ours, you ∼ yours, her ∼ hers, their ∼ theirs (but his has only one form)

The genitives of the personal pronouns are usually called possessive pronouns (see 623). The following table gives all the forms of personal and reflexive pronouns.

images

Personal pronouns

  621   Personal pronouns, as we see from this table, are classified according to

•  person: 1st, 2nd, 3rd person

•  number: singular, plural

•  gender: masculine, feminine, non-personal

•  case: subjective, objective, genitive (or possessive)

The choice of person, number and gender is decided by meaning, which is supplied either by context outside language, or by the sort of noun phrase to which the pronoun ‘refers’ (or ‘points back’; see 375). Pronouns generally point back to a noun phrase, as in this example and in [1] and [2] below:

My brother is out, but he will be returning soon.

But a personal pronoun in a subclause can also ‘point forward’ to a noun phrase in the following main clause, as it pointing forward to the plane in [3] below. Compare the different order in the following three alternative sentences.

images

It is especially in <formal written> English that the personal pronoun precedes the noun phrase, as in [3].

Subjective and objective forms

  622   The choice of subjective and objective case is made on the basis of grammatical position. The simplest rule to use is that the subjective form is the one used in subject position with finite verbs, and the objective form is the form used in all other positions.

Subjective case:

She was very helpful.

Objective case:

image

In the last two examples, older than him and it’s me are <informal> English. It is sometimes stated that the subjective form is the correct one here. But older than I and it’s I sound rather stilted, and are avoided in <informal> use (see 506).

Possessives

  623   There are two kinds of possessives, each with its separate function. My, your, her, etc. act as determiners before noun heads. Mine, yours, hers, etc. act as pronouns, i.e. as independent noun phrases. In pronoun function, the possessive is stressed. Compare the two corresponding genitive noun constructions (see 530) in the right-hand column:

Determiner function:

This is her book.

∼ This is Joan’s book.

Pronoun function:

This book is 'hers.

∼ This book is 'Joan’s.

Possessives as determiner: Have you changed your mind again?

  624   Unlike many other languages, English uses determiner possessives with reference to parts of the body and personal belongings:

Hannah broke her leg when she was skiing in Austria.

Don’t tell me they’ve changed their minds again!

Don’t lose your balance and fall into the water!

I can’t find my glasses.

The definite article is usual in prepositional phrases related to the object:

She took the little girl by the hand. [The hand belongs to the little girl.]

Something must have hit me on the head. [The head is mine.]

In passive constructions, the prepositional phrase is related to the subject: He was shot in the leg during the war.

Possessives as pronoun: Is that paper yours?

  625   The forms mine, hers, theirs, etc., can act in all the main positions where a noun phrase is possible:

•   A possessive as subject:

Yours is an international company, mine is just a small local firm.

•   A possessive as subject complement:

Is that my copy or yours?

•   A possessive as object:

Philip wanted a bike, so I let him borrow yours.

•   A possessive as prepositional complement:

This is a special policy of theirs, is it?

What business is it of hers? (compare 535)

  A possessive is also used in comparisons after than and as:

Your car looks faster than ours. (‘our car’)

Reflexive pronouns: Have you locked yourself out?

  626   Reflexive pronouns are used as objects, complements, and (often) prepositional complements where these elements have the same reference as the subject of the clause or sentence. Notice that in some cases the reflexive pronoun receives nuclear stress, and in other cases not:

We have to find ourselves a new hòme.

Have you locked yourself óut?

Bradley works too hard. He’ll burn himself òut.

I hope Ella enjòyed herself at the party.

Most authors start by writing novels about themsèlves.

This is a word the aborigines use among themsèlves.

Jack certainly has a high images of himsélf.

Carolyn got a seat all by hersèlf.

The indefinite pronoun one (see 680) has its own reflexive, as in

One mustn’t fòol oneself.

It’s just a journey one does by onesèlf.

Reflexives are also used in imperative and non-finite constructions, where they point back to the element which is understood to be the subject of the verb:

Make yourself at home.

I’ve asked everyone to help themselves. [On concord here, see 96.]

But the ordinary personal pronouns are used in many prepositional phrases denoting place:

He turned around and looked about him.

Have you any money on you?

We examined all the documents in front of us.

Personal or reflexive pronoun:

someone like yousomeone like yourself

  627   The reflexive pronouns (myself, ourselves, etc.) are sometimes used as alternatives to the objective forms of personal pronouns (me, us, etc.). This happens after as for, but for, except for, like, and in coordinated noun phrases:

As for me/myself, I don’t mind what you decide to do.

For someone like me/myself, one good meal a day is quite enough.

The picture Molly showed us was of her/herself and Brian on the terrace.

Emphatic use: I’ll do it myself.

  628   The reflexive pronouns also have an emphatic use where they follow a noun phrase or another pronoun, and reinforce its meaning:

image

We can also postpone the reflexive pronoun to the end of the sentence (see 428):

image

Alternative constructions: my own room ∼ a room of my own

  629   After a possessive determiner, own can be used for reflexive or emphatic meaning: my own, your own, his own etc.:

John cooks his own dinner. (‘John cooks dinner for himself’)

We’ll have to make our own decisions.

The government is encouraging people to buy their own homes.

The intensifying adverb very can be added before own for added emphasis:

Do you like the soup? The recipe is my very own.

The combination possessive + own can also occur in an of-phrase (compare 535):

I’d love to have a house of my own.

It’s so much easier for students to work in a room of their own.

Phrasal and prepositional verbs

(see CGEL 16.3–16)

Phrasal verbs: Go on!

  630   Verbs may form combinations with adverbial particles such as down, in, off, on, out, up:

Aren’t you going to sit dόwn?

When will they give in?

My interview went off very smoothly.

The plane has just taken off.

Did Ryan catch on to what you were saying?

We expect this project to go on another three years.

The doctor thinks by the end of next week you could get out in the air a little.

Drink up quickly.

It’s a pity their marriage did break up, and whose fault was it?

I usually get up quite early and get on with my òwn work.

I stood there for another ten minutes but Alexandra didn’t turn ùp.

Such verb–adverb combinations are called phrasal verbs, and they are usually <informal>. Most adverbs in phrasal verbs are place adverbs identical in form to prepositions (down, in, up, etc.; see 192). Verbs can also combine with prepositional adverbs which function like prepositional phrases (see 654):

They walked past (the place).

[1]

She ran across (the street).

[2]

In [1] and [2], the noun phrases are omitted by ellipsis. Like these, some phrasal verbs retain the individual meanings of the verb and the adverb (for example sit down). Other phrasal verbs are idiomatic: the meaning of the combination cannot be built up from the meanings of the individual verb and adverb, as in catch on (‘understand’), give in (‘surrender’), turn up (‘appear, arrive’).

Alternative adverb positions: Turn on the light! ∼ Turn the light on!

  631   Many phrasal verbs can take an object:

The new government was unable to bring about immediate expansion.

The president decided to break off diplomatic relations immediately.

The union called off the strike.

I’ll get out my old pair of skis.

We’ve got to find out what’s going on here.

Daniel couldn’t get over the fact that Natasha died.

Robert’s parents were forced to make up the deficit.

Georgia is bringing up her brother’s children.

The enemy blew up the bridge.

With most phrasal verbs, the adverb can either come before or follow a noun object:

They turned on the light. ∼ They turned the light on.

But when the object is a personal pronoun it always has to come before the adverb:

They turned it on. (BUT NOT: *They turned on it.)

In some cases phrasal verbs with objects look identical to verbs followed by a prepositional phrase. Compare:

They ran 'over the càt. (‘knocked down and passed over’) [phrasal verb]

They ran over the images. (‘crossed the bridge by running’) [verb + preposition]

Prepositional verbs: Will you attend to that?

  632   A verb may also form a fixed combination with a preposition (see 744), for example:

The article also hinted at other possibilities.

Brandon has applied for a new job.

The mayor announced that he would not run for re-election.

Would you like to comment on the situation?

I don’t object to this proposal in principle.

The noun phrase following the preposition is called the prepositional object. Here are some other examples of prepositional verbs:

The plan must be flexible enough to allow for technological breakthroughs.

The new hospital is equipped to care for all patients.

Zoe said she was not adequately trained to describe or enlarge on these difficult questions.

What is called a plan for action amounts to doing nothing.

At the meeting Katie told Bill not to bother about the contract – she would attend to that.

These statements can be interpreted to conform to our own point of view.

We must give small shops a chance to compete with large supermarkets.

The personal pronouns are normally unstressed because they refer to what is prominent in the immediate context.

The minister stated categorically that we should under no circumstances resort to the use of such weapons unless they are first used by our enemies.

Notice that prepositional verbs are commonly ‘stranded’ at the end of the sentence (see 659) when they are part of prepositional verbs:

That’s exactly what I’m hoping for.

Jordan had a poor salary but he didn’t need much to live on.

Phrasal and prepositional verbs compared: call her up BUT call on her

  633   Phrasal and prepositional verbs may seem very similar, for example:

Matthew called up his wife to tell her he’d met some old friends and could be home late.

[1]

Megan went to the hospital to call on a friend after a serious operation.

[2]

But phrasal verbs, such as call up in [1], and prepositional verbs, such as call on in [2], are different in several ways:

  The adverb in a phrasal verb [1] is usually stressed and has nuclear stress in end-position. The preposition in a prepositional verb [2] is normally unstressed. Compare:

All young men were called ùp | for military sèrvice.

[1]

We’ll càll on you | as soon as we images.

[2]

  The preposition in a prepositional verb must come before the prepositional object. Compare the phrasal verb [3] with the prepositional verb [4]:

We’ll call up our friends.

[3]

∼ We’ll call our friends up.

 

∼ We’ll call them up.

 

We’ll call on our friends.

[4]

∼ We’ll call on them. (BUT NOT: *We’ll call our friends on.)

 

  Only the prepositional verb allows an adverb to be placed between the verb and the preposition:

They called early on their friends. (BUT NOT: *They called early up their friends.)

Unlike some languages, English allows the prepositional object to become the subject of a passive sentence (see 613). Compare:

Some employees looked upon the manager almost as a saint.

∼ The manager was looked upon almost as a saint (by some employees).

Phrasal-prepositional verbs: This noise is hard to put up with!

  634   In <informal> English, some verbs can combine as an idiom with both an adverb and a preposition, for example:

What a preposterous idea! She’ll never get away with it. (‘succeed’)

We shouldn’t give in to their arguments so easily. (‘yield’)

You shouldn’t break in on a conversation like that. (‘interrupt’)

Alex walked out on the project. (‘abandoned’)

I’m trying to catch up on my own work. (‘bring … up to date’)

Samantha seems to put up with almost anything. (‘tolerate’)

We call these combinations phrasal-prepositional verbs. Like prepositional verbs, some phrasal-prepositional verbs can be turned into the passive by changing the prepositional object into the subject of the clause (see 618):

They thought such tendencies would increase rather than be done away with. (‘be abolished’)

We cannot insert an adverb between the preposition and the object, but we can do so between the adverb and the preposition:

Oddly enough Andrew puts up willingly with that manager of his.

In relative clauses, and other fronting constructions where the prepositional object is front-placed, the adverb and preposition stay after the verb. (Compare the ‘stranded’ preposition with prepositional verbs, see 659. The front-placed object and the stranded preposition are printed in bold.)

Is this something the police are checking up on? (‘investigating’)

You don’t realize what I’ve had to put up with. (‘tolerate’)

Here are some more examples of phrasal-prepositional verbs in <informal> English:

The robbers managed to make away with most of the bank’s money. (‘escape with’)

You should never look down on people in trouble. (‘have a low opinion of’)

Now let’s get down to some serious talk. (‘give some serious attention to’)

Why don’t you just drop in on the new neighbours? (‘call on’ <casual>)

You can’t just back out of an agreement like that!

The first thing you’ve got to do, to be happy, is to face up to your problems. (‘confront’)

What does it all add up to? (‘amount to’)

Somebody’s got to stand up for those principles! (‘defend’)

Plurals

(see CGEL 5.73–103)

Regular plurals: one dog ∼ many dogs

  635   Most nouns are count nouns: they can occur in both the singular, denoting ‘one’, or in the plural, denoting ‘more than one’ (see 58). Most count nouns have the regular -s plural, which is formed by adding an -s to the singular: one dog ∼ two dogs. In some cases, spelling changes occur when -s is added (see 702). For the pronunciation of the -s ending, see 664.

In most compounds the ending is added to the last part: district attorney ∼ district attorneys. So also: breakdowns, check-ups, grown-ups, stand-bys, take-offs, etc. But in a few compounds where the head noun comes first, the ending follows the first part: editors-in-chief, lookers-on (BUT: onlookers), mothers-in-law, notaries public, runners-up, passers-by. A few compounds have both the first and the last part in the plural, as in woman writer ∼ women writers.

Irregular plurals

Voicing + -s plural: knifeknives

  636   Some singular nouns which end in the voiceless /f/ or /θ/ sound (spelled -f and -th) change to the corresponding voiced sound /v/ or Images in the plural before the regular /z/ ending.

  Most nouns ending in -f have the regular plural /fs/: beliefs, chefs, chiefs, cliffs, proofs, roofs, safes, etc. But some nouns ending in -f(e) have voiced plurals pronounced /-vz/ and spelled -ves:

calf ∼ calves

half ∼ halves

knife ∼ knives

leaf ∼ leaves

life ∼ lives

loaf ∼ loaves

shelf ∼ shelves

thief ∼ thieves

wife ∼ wives

wolf ∼ wolves

There is also voicing in plural reflexive pronouns: herself ∼ themselves (see 619).

   Nouns ending in a consonant before -th have the regular plural: month /mΛnθ/ ∼ months /mΛnθs. With a vowel before the -th, the plural is also often regular, as with cloths, deaths, faiths. But there is voicing in mouth /maʊθ/ ∼ mouths /maʊðz/, path ∼ paths. In some cases we find both regular and voiced plurals: oath /oʊθ/ ∼ oaths /oʊθs/ or /oʊðz/. Similarly: truths, wreaths.

   House /haʊs/ has voicing in the plural: /haʊZIZ/, but the spelling is regular: houses.

Change of vowel in the plural: foot ∼ feet

  637   The following nouns form the plural by a vowel change instead of an ending: foot Images ∼ feet Images (on six foot/feet two inches, see 638), tooth Images ∼ teeth Images, goose Images ∼ geese Images, man /mæn/ ∼ men /men/, mouse /maʊs/ ∼ mice /maIs/ (for the hand-held device used with a computer, both mice and the regular mouses occur), woman /'wʊmən/ ∼ women /'wImIn/; child /t∫aIld/ has the plural children /'t∫Ildrən/.

No plural ending: one sheep ∼ many sheep

  638   Most animal nouns form a regular plural: bird ∼ birds, hen ∼ hens, rabbit ∼ rabbits, etc. But some animal nouns can be used both with a singular and a plural meaning without change in form (called ‘zero plural’).

  Some animal nouns are always unchanged: one sheep ∼ many sheep, one deer ∼ two deer. Similarly: grouse, moose, plaice, salmon. These nouns are usually unchanged: trout (e.g. a lot of fine trout), carp, pike.

  The following nouns occur with both the regular and the unchanged plurals: herring (several herring/herrings), antelope, fish, flounder.

  Dozen and foot have no plural form in many expressions of quantity:

image

  Plural expressions like five days do not have a plural -s when they modify a noun (see 651): a five-day week, a six-cylinder engine, an eight-month-old baby.

  Series and species can be used as either singular or plural: one series/ two series of lectures.

Foreign plurals: one analysis ∼ several analyses

  639   Some nouns borrowed from foreign languages (including Latin and Greek) keep their foreign plurals, instead of adopting regular English plurals. Other foreign nouns can have both a regular plural and a foreign plural.

Nouns ending in -us (Latin). Only regular plurals occur in, for example, bonus ∼ bonuses, campus ∼ campuses, circus ∼ circuses. The foreign plural -i pronounced /aI/ is used in stimulus ∼ stimuli /'stImjʊlaI/, alumnus ∼ alumni, bacillus ∼ bacilli. Both plurals are used in cactus ∼ cactuses/cacti, focus

∼ focuses/foci, radius ∼ radiuses/radii, terminus ∼ terminuses/termini, syllabus ∼ syllabuses/syllabi. Corpus, denoting a collection of texts to be used in linguistic analysis, has another Latin plural: corpora, besides the regular corpuses.

Nouns ending in -a (Latin): The regular plural occurs in area ∼ areas, arena ∼ arenas, etc. The foreign plural in -ae (pronounced /iImages/) is used in alumna ∼ alumnae, alga ∼ algae, larva ∼ larvae. Both plurals occur in formula ∼ formulas/formulae, antenna ∼ antennas/antennae. Foreign plurals tend to be more common in technical usage, whereas the -s plural is more natural in everyday language. We find formulas in general use, as in the formulas of politicians, milk formulas. But formulae is often used in mathematics: algebraic formulae. Similarly, antennas is found in general uses and in electronics (directional antennas), but antennae in biology. Schema has Greek plural: schemata besides the regular schemas.

Nouns ending in -um (Latin): Only the regular plural occurs in album ∼ albums, gymnasium ∼ gymnasiums, museum ∼ museums, etc. Usually regular are also forum ∼ forums, stadium ∼ stadiums, ultimatum ∼ ultimatums. The foreign plural in -a /ə/ is used in curriculum ∼ curricula, stratum ∼ strata. Both the regular and the foreign plural occur in memorandum ∼ memorandums/memoranda, symposium ∼ symposiums/symposia.

Medium always has the plural media in the mass media sense where newspapers, magazines, radio and television are considered as a group: the national media, a media event. Media and also data ‘information, facts’ are often used as if they were singular mass nouns:

The media are/is giving a biased account of this story.

These data show/This data shows that the hypothesis was right.

Nouns ending in -ex and -ix (Latin): The foreign plural -ices, pronounced /-IsiImagesz/, is used in index ∼ indices, codex ∼ codices. Both regular and foreign plurals occur in apex ∼ apexes/apices, appendix ∼ appendixes/appendices, matrix ∼ matrixes/matrices.

  640   Nouns ending in -is (Greek): The regular plural occurs in metropolis ∼ metropolises. The foreign plural -es /-i:z/, is used in analysis ∼ analyses, axis ∼ axes, basis ∼ bases, crisis ∼ crises, diagnosis ∼ diagnoses, ellipsis ∼ ellipses, hypothesis ∼ hypotheses, oasis ∼ oases, parenthesis ∼ parentheses, synopsis ∼ synopses, thesis ∼ theses.

Nouns ending in -on (Greek): Only regular plurals are used in demon ∼ demons, neutron ∼ neutrons, proton ∼ protons. The foreign plural -a /ə/ is used in criterion ∼ criteria, phenomenon ∼ phenomena. Both plurals are used in automaton ∼ automatons/automata.

Postmodifiers

(see CGEL 17.9–64)

Different types of postmodifiers

  641   A noun can be modified by another word (often an adjective) placed before the noun: the red house. Such words are called premodifiers. A noun can also be modified by a following phrase or a clause, often a relative clause: the house which is red. Modifiers after the noun head are called postmodifiers (see 596).

We have the following types of postmodifiers [noun phrase heads are printed in SMALL CAPITALS, modifiers printed in bold]:

  Relative clauses (see separate entry 686):

The parents wanted to meet the BOY who was going out with their daughter.

  Non-finite clauses equivalent to relative clauses (see 643):

They wanted to meet the BOY going out with their daughter.

  Prepositional phrases (see 642, 654):

A nice young WOMAN in jeans was watching me.

  Appositive clauses (see 646):

There is no getting away from the FACT that inflation is causing hardship.

  Adverbs (see 648):

Where is the WAY out?

  Adjectives (see 649):

There’s NOTHING new about these techniques.

  Clauses of time, place, manner and reason (see 647):

In Stratford-on-Avon we visited the HOUSE where Shakespeare lived.

Two or more postmodifiers can modify the same noun:

Have you seen the HOUSE [in Stratford-on-Avon] [where Shakespeare lived]?

Prepositional phrases as postmodifier: a week of hard work

  642   Prepositional phrases (see 654) are by far the most common type of postmodifier in English. Prepositional phrases can often be expanded to relative clauses (on of-phrases, see also 106, 531):

Is this the ROAD to Paris? (‘Is this the road that leads to Paris?’).

These are economic ACTIONS beyond the normal citizen’s control. (‘… actions which are beyond …’)

This message is scarcely a CAUSE for regret.

The government seems to have no CONTROL over capital movement.

There must be a better WAY of doing it.

Non-finite clauses as postmodifier

  643   All three types of non-finite clause (-ing participle clauses, -ed participle clauses, and to-infinitive clauses) can function as postmodifiers similar to relative clauses. Here are some examples:

  -ing participle clauses: the GIRL sitting opposite me

PEOPLE working in the IT business are often young. (‘who are working in the IT business’)

Do you know any of those PEOPLE sitting behind us?

A MAN wearing a grey suit left the office.

Last Friday I got a LETTER saying that there was trouble afoot.

The participle clause does not have tense (see 128, 392), so that it can be interpreted, according to context, as past or present. But the -ing participle clause need not carry the meaning of the progressive aspect (see 132, 740):

All ARTICLES belonging to the college must be returned. (‘all articles that belong …’; a progressive form *‘that are belonging’ could not be used here.)

  644   •  -ed participle clauses: the SUBJECT discussed in the book

The QUESTION debated in Parliament yesterday was about the new tax. (‘that was debated in Parliament’)

We have seen the DAMAGE to the pine done by the deer. (‘that has been done/had been done/was done by the deer’)

The participle clause (done by the deer) corresponds in meaning to a passive relative clause, but the participle clause contains none of the distinctions that can be made by tense and aspect.

  645     to-infinitive clauses: the best THING to do

If you can’t think of a THING to do, try something – anything.

I’ve got SOMETHING to say to you.

The to-infinitive clause is often preceded by next, last, ordinal numerals or superlatives:

The next TRAIN to arrive was from Chicago. (‘the train which arrived next’)

Mr Knowles is the last PERSON to cause trouble. (‘the person who would be the last to cause trouble’)

Amundsen was the first MAN to reach the South Pole. (‘the man who reached the South Pole first’)

In many infinitive clauses, the head of the noun phrase is the implied object or prepositional object of the infinitive verb:

The best PERSON to consult is Wilson. (‘the person that you should consult’)

There are plenty of TOYS to play with. (‘toys which they can play with’)

In these cases, a subject preceded by for may be added:

The best PERSON for you to consult is Wilson.

There are plenty of TOYS for the children to play with.

(On other infinitive clauses, such as the time to arrive, see 728.)

Appositive clauses as postmodifier:

Have you heard the NEWS that our team won?

  646   Appositive clauses are nominal clauses which have a relation to the head similar to that between two noun phrases in apposition (see 470). They can be that-clauses (see 589) or to-infinitive clauses (see 593):

We will stick to my IDEA that the project can be finished on time.

[1]

It is reported that there has been a PLOT to overthrow the government.

[2]

The noun phrase can be related to a subject + be + complement construction:

My idea is that the project can be finished on time.

[1a]

The plot was to overthrow the government.

[2a]

The head of an appositive clause is an abstract noun such as fact, idea, reply, answer, appeal, promise:

We were delighted at the NEWS that our team had won.

We gratefully accepted John’s PROMISE to help us.

The mayor launched an APPEAL to the public to give blood to the victims of the disaster.

The examples of appositive clauses given so far have been restrictive (see 687). There are also non-restrictive appositive clauses. (On the distinction between restrictive and non-restrictive meaning, see 110.)

His main ARGUMENT, that scientific laws have no exceptions, was considered absurd.

His last APPEAL, for his son to visit him, was never delivered.

Clauses of time, place, manner, and reason

  647   There are a number of postmodifying clauses which denote adverbial relations: time (see 151), place (170), manner (194) and reason (198).

Finite clauses introduced by a wh-word, such as when, where, why

TIME:

Can you give me a TIME when you will be free?

PLACE:

The Smiths wanted to take a vacation in a PLACE where people could speak English.

REASON:

There’s no REASON why you should have to do a thing like that.

Finite clauses introduced by that or zero (i.e. with that left out)

TIME:

I’ll never forget the TIME (that) we’ve had together here.

PLACE:

That’s hardly a PLACE (that) one wants to go for a holiday.

MANNER:

The WAY (that) you suggested to solve the problem didn’t work.

REASON:

The REASON (that) I’m asking is that I need your advice.

To-infinitive clause

TIME:

I’ll have plenty of TIME to deal with this problem.

PLACE:

That’s probably the best PLACE to go (to) for trout-fishing.

MANNER:

There’s really no other WAY to do it.

REASON:

I have no REASON to believe Alex can finish his thesis this year.

Adverbs as postmodifier: Can you find the road back?

  648   Some adverbs are used as postmodifiers of nouns (see also 468):

Can you find the ROAD back?

The PEOPLE outside started to shout.

Have you written your paper for the SEMINAR tomorrow (‘tomorrow’s seminar’)?

Adjectives as postmodifier: There’s something odd about him.

  649   Adjectives which modify a noun usually stand before the noun: an odd person. But in some constructions, e.g. with a pronoun like something, anyone or everyone, they follow the noun (see 443):

There was SOMETHING odd about his behaviour.

ANYONE keen on modern jazz should not miss this opportunity.

Premodifiers

(see CGEL 17.94–120)

Different types of premodifiers

  650   Modifiers which are placed after determiners (see 522) but before the head of a noun phrase are called premodifiers. There are different types of premodifiers [the head is printed in SMALL CAPITALS and the premodifier in bold]:

•  Adjectives as premodifiers (see 440):

We had a pleasant HOLIDAY this year.

There are plenty of bright PEOPLE here.

An adjective can itself be modified by degree adverbs (see 459):

We had a very pleasant HOLIDAY this year.

There are a number of really quite bright young PEOPLE here.

•  -ing participles as premodifiers:

a beginning STUDENT, the developing COUNTRIES, a continuing COMMITMENT

•  -ed participles as premodifiers:

a retired TEACHER, reduced PRICES, wanted PERSONS, the defeated ARMY

•  Nouns as premodifiers:

Are the removal EXPENSES paid by your company?

The passenger LINER dropped anchor in the harbour.

Compounds as premodifier: camera-ready copy

  651   Compounds often function as premodifiers of nouns. A compound is a combination of words which function as a single adjective or noun:

We’ve just bought a brand-new CAR.

Do you have to submit camera-ready COPY?

That’s an absolutely first-class IDEA!

These are all hard-working STUDENTS.

Is that a new-style CARDIGAN?

Emma has some pretty old-fashioned NOTIONS.

There are also modifiers which consist of more than two words, e.g. out of date. They are not hyphenated when they occur as complements (after the verb in a clause):

This dictionary is out of date.

But they are often hyphenated when they are placed as modifiers before a noun:

an out-of-date DICTIONARY

a ready-to-wear SUIT

thick red-and-white-striped WALLPAPER

Sequences of three, four, or even more nouns can occur in a noun phrase, e.g.:

a Copenhagen airline ticket office

These are formed either through noun premodification or through noun compounds, or through a combination of both. We can show the way in which this example is built up as follows:

airline ticket (‘a ticket issued by an airline’)

airline ticket office (‘an office which sells airline tickets’)

Copenhagen airline ticket office (‘an airline ticket office in Copenhagen’)

The structure of this noun phrase can be indicated by bracketing:

a [Copenhagen [[airline ticket] office]]

More than one premodifier: the American spring medical conference

  652   When a noun head has two or more premodifiers, these tend to occur in a certain order. We deal with them in a right-to-left order, i.e. starting from the head (printed in SMALL CAPITALS, modifiers in bold). The item that comes next before the head is the type of classifying adjective which means ‘consisting of’, ‘involving’, or ‘relating to’:

A medical CONFERENCE will be held here next year.

Next closest to the head is the noun modifier:

We always attend the spring medical CONFERENCE.

Before the noun modifier comes the adjective derived from a proper noun:

I mean the American spring medical CONFERENCE.

However, most noun phrases have a simpler structure with no more than two modifiers, for example:

oriental CARPETS

Scandinavian furniture DESIGNS

  653   Before these modifiers we can find a variety of other modifiers, such as colour-adjectives (deep-red), adjectives denoting age or size (young, large) and participles (printed):

deep-red oriental CARPETS

a young physics STUDENT

a large lecture HALL

printed Scandinavian furniture DESIGNS

the European Wind Energy ASSOCIATION

These premodifiers can themselves be preceded by other modifiers:

expensive deep-red oriental CARPETS

a very, very young physics STUDENT

a large enough lecture HALL

attractive printed Scandinavian furniture DESIGNS

the Brussels-based European Wind Energy ASSOCIATION

Notice the middle position of little, old and young when they are unstressed:

My grandmother lives in a 'nice little 'VILLAGE.

This is indeed a 'fine red 'WINE.

Alexander looks like a 'serious young 'MAN.

Prepositional phrases

(see CGEL Chapter 9)

Complements of prepositions

  654   A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition (see 657) followed by a prepositional complement. The complement is usually a noun phrase, but can also be another element:

  Preposition + a noun phrase (see 595):

As usual, Ann’s bright smile greeted me at the breakfast table.

  Preposition + a wh-clause (see 590):

She came from what she called ‘a small farm’ of two hundred acres.

  Preposition + an -ing clause (see 594):

Warren tried to shake off his fears by looking at the sky.

  Preposition + an adverb:

You can see the lake from here.

  655   There are two types of nominal clauses which cannot be the complement of a preposition: that-clauses (see 589) and to-infinitive clauses (see 593). With such clauses, the preposition is omitted:

I was surprised at the news.

I was surprised that things changed so quickly. (at is omitted)

I was surprised to hear you say that. (at is omitted)

By contrast, a wh-clause can be preceded by a preposition:

I was surprised at what happened next.

I agree with what you say, Amy.

Sometimes, the addition of the fact (see 646) can serve to convert the that-clause construction into a form suitable for a prepositional complement. Compare:

I think everybody’s aware of these problems.

∼ I think everybody’s aware that there are problems.

∼ I think everybody’s aware of the fact that there are problems.

The functions of prepositional phrases

  656   Prepositional phrases have many different grammatical functions. Here are the main functions:

•  Prepositional phrases as adverbial (see 449):

We may need you to do some work in the evening.

To my surprise, the doctor phoned the next morning.

Finally I went back to my old job.

•  Prepositional phrases as modifier in a noun phrase (see 596):

Chelsea felt she had no CHANCE of promotion.

CONGRATULATIONS on your article.

We’ve rented this COTTAGE in the country for peace and quiet.

The NOISE from the sitting-room was deafening.

The world has to reduce its OUTPUT of greenhouse gases.

•  Prepositional phrases as verb complement:

We are passionately COMMITTED to the development of Africa.

You don’t seem particularly WORRIED about the situation.

•  Prepositional phrases as complement of an adjective (see 437):

How can you remember when that novel came out? I’m terribly BAD at dates.

A prepositional phrase may occasionally function as subject, complement, etc.:

Before lunch is when I do my best work.

Prepositions and prepositional adverbs

(see CGEL 9.65–66)

Simple prepositions

  657   Prepositions are very frequent words like at, for and by that are placed before a noun phrase (by his work), an -ing clause (by working hard), etc. to form a prepositional phrase (see 654). The most common English prepositions are simple, i.e. they consist of one word. Here are the most common simple prepositions:

about

above

after

along

around

at

before

below

beside

between

by

down

for

from

in

into

of

off

on

over

past

since

till

through

to

under

until

up

with

without

In the following examples, the brackets [ ] enclose prepositional phrases:

Do you know anything more definite [about her]?

Temperatures hardly rose [above freezing] [for three months].

When Miranda went to see Bill [after the accident] he was [in bed] [with a drip feed].

As Joan Bradley was walking [up the street] the van stopped [beside her] and one [of the men] lifted her [into it] and shut the door.

One prepositional phrase can be included in another:

The fire was discovered [at about five [past seven]].

A new scheme may be announced [before the end [of this month]].

[After walking [up the lane]] they made a sharp turn [to the right] [past some buildings].

It must be a nasty surprise [for motorists] going [along a moorland road] [at the end [of the night]] to suddenly find a kangaroo jumping out [at them].

This is one [of the cheapest ways [of reducing our output [of greenhouse gases]]].

Complex prepositions

  658   There are also prepositions consisting of more than one word, so-called complex prepositions. Here are some two-word prepositions:

along with

as for

away from

because of

due to

except for

instead of

out of

outside of

preliminary to

together with

up to

There are also three-word prepositions:

as distinct from

by means of

in case of

in comparison with

in front of

in relation to

in terms of

on account of

on behalf of

on top of

with reference to

with regard to

Here are some examples of both simple and complex prepositions:

[Because of family circumstances] Michael was kept [in the hospital] [for a time].

Certain trades are [in many communities] closed areas [of employment], [except for a lucky few].

The boy said the blast knocked him [out of bed] and [against the wall].

It’s [up to the government] to take action [against this ecological disaster].

Decide what the place is worth [to you] [as a home] [in comparison with

what it would cost] to live [in town].

The training has not been enough [in relation to the need].

I grinned, feeling supremely [on top of things].

Stranded prepositions: What’s she looking at?

  659   Normally a preposition comes before its complement:

I came in my brother’s car.

[1]

But there are cases where this does not happen, as in this wh-question:

Which car did you come in?

[1a]

In wh-questions, relative clauses and exclamations, the preposition can stand either at the end, as in [1a], or at the beginning, as in [1b]:

In which car did you come?

[1b]

Prepositions which are deferred to the end of the sentence are called stranded prepositions. ‘Stranding’, as in [1a], is associated with <informal English, spoken or written>, whereas ‘non-stranding’, as in [1b], is associated with <careful public writing>, such as academic prose. Here are some examples:

•  In relative clauses (see 688):

That’s a job you need special training for. [<informal> with stranding and zero that]

∼ This is a post for which one needs special training. <formal>

The means through which the plan may be achieved are very limited. <formal>

•  In wh-questions (see 683, including indirect questions, see 259):

Who do you work for?

For whom do you work? <formal>

What were you referring to?

I asked her which company she worked for.

•  In exclamations (see 528):

What a difficult situation he’s in!

With what amazing skill this artist handles the brush! <formal>

There are some clauses where there are no alternative positions for the preposition. In nominal wh-clauses, passive clauses, and most infinitive clauses, the preposition must occur at the end:

  wh-clauses (see 590, 592):

What I’m convinced of is that the world’s population will grow too fast.

  Passive clauses (see 618):

The old woman was cared for by a nurse from the hospital.

  Infinitive clauses (see 593):

Our new manager is an easy man to work with.

Prepositional adverbs: A police car just went past.

  660   A prepositional adverb is an adverb which behaves like a preposition with the complement omitted (see 185, 192):

I walked past the entrance.

[past = preposition]

I got a quick look at their faces as we went past.

[past = prepositional adverb]

Prepositions consisting of one syllable are normally unstressed, but prepositional adverbs are stressed. Compare:

image

Pronouns

(see CGEL 6.1–13)

  661   Pronouns are words like I, you, me, this, those, everybody, nobody, each other, who, which. A pronoun can function as a whole noun phrase, for example in being subject or object of a clause: I love you. Many of them act as substitutes (see 375) or ‘replacements’ for noun phrases in the context. A singular noun phrase is replaced by a singular pronoun and a plural noun phrase is replaced by a plural pronoun:

[A]: What sort of car is this?

[B]: It’s called a hatchback.

[A]: What cars are those?

[B]: They’re called hatchbacks.

Since a pronoun functions as a whole noun phrase, it does not normally have any determiners or modifiers. But many words can function both as determiners (which require a head) and as pronouns (which do not require a head).

Which bike is yours?

[Which is a determiner]

Which is yours?

[Which is a pronoun]

This bike is mine.

[This is a determiner]

This is my bike.

[This is a pronoun]

Some items, e.g. she, herself, they, one another, each other, cannot be determiners but are pronouns only:

She had to support herself while attending college.

At first they didn’t recognize one another.

The members of the family were separated from each other for several months.

  662   Pronouns are treated under different headings in this part of the grammar:

Demonstratives: this, that, these, those in 521.

Interrogatives: who, which, what, where, etc. in 536–41.

Negatives: none, nobody, no one, nothing, etc. in 581–7 (negation) and 675–80 (quantifiers).

Personal and reflexive pronouns: I, my, mine, myself, etc. in 619–29.

Reciprocal pronouns: each other and one another in 685.

Relative clauses: who, whom, whose, which, that in 686–94.

Quantifiers: some, any, someone, everything, anybody, each, all, both, either, much, many, more, most, enough, several, little, a little, few, a few, less, least, etc. in 675–80.

Pronunciation of endings

(see CGEL 3.3–10, 5.80, 5–113, 7.80)

The five endings of English

  663   English has very few grammatical endings (inflections). The only five endings regularly used are -s, -ed, -ing, -er, -est. But some of them are used for more than one word-class. Here we deal with rules for the pronunciation of grammatical endings, whether they are added to nouns, verbs, or adjectives.

The -s ending: She works hard.

  664   The -s ending has three different grammatical functions:

  plural of nouns: Amy stayed for two weeks. (see 635)

  genitive of nouns: It was a week’s work. (see 530)

  3rd person singular present tense of verbs: She works hard. (see 574)

However, the rules for pronouncing the ending are the same in all functions:

image

  The pronunciation is /IZ/ after bases ending in voiced or voiceless sibilants: /z/, /s/, /dʒ/, /t∫/, /ʒ/, /∫/. Examples of plurals, genitives and 3rd person singular present tense:

image

  The pronunciation is /z/ after bases ending in a vowel and voiced consonants other than /z/, /dʒ/, /ʒ/:

image

  The pronunciation is /s/ after bases ending in voiceless sounds other than /s/, /t∫/, /∫/:

image

Note the irregular pronunciations of the verbs do and say in the 3rd person singular present tense:

image

The -ed ending (see 574): She worked hard.

  665   The -ed ending of regular verbs has three spoken forms:

  /Id/ after bases ending in /d/ and /t/:

image

  /d/ after bases ending in vowels and voiced consonants other than /d/:

image

  /t/ after bases ending in voiceless sounds other than /t/:

image

The -er, -est and -ing endings

  666   Normally the endings -er, -est, -ing, pronounced /ə(r)/, /Ist/, and /ɪŋ/, are simply added to the base (see 501). But note these special changes of pronunciation:

•  Syllabic l is no longer syllabic before -er and -est:

image

•  Three adjectives ending in /ŋ/ change /ŋ/ to /ŋg/ before -er and -est:

image

Also in: strong ∼ stronger ∼ strongest, young ∼ younger ∼ youngest.

But no change in sing /sIŋ/ ∼ singing /'sIŋIŋ/.

•  Whether or not speakers pronounce final r in words like pour and poor, the r is always pronounced before -ing, -er and -est:

image

Proper nouns and names

(see CGEL 5.60–72)

The unique reference of proper nouns

  667   Proper nouns have unique reference, and usually have no article in English (see 92). The following list gives examples of article usage with some classes of proper nouns.

Proper nouns without an article: Professor Dale

  668   Personal names (with or without titles) have no article:

Miranda, Paul, Helen Lee, Shakespeare, Mr and Mrs Johnson, Lady Macbeth,

Dr Clark, Judge Powell <mainly AmE>, Professor Dale

Contrast names with ‘unique’ descriptions, for which the is needed:

President Roosevelt (BUT: the President of the United States)

Lord Nelson (BUT: the Lord = ‘God’; see 83)

Family terms with unique reference often behave like proper nouns:

Hello Mother/Mummy/Mum/Ma! (The last three terms are <familiar>.)

Father/Daddy/Dad will soon be home. (The last two terms are <familiar>.)

  669   Calendar items have no article.

•  Names of festivals and public holidays: New Year’s Day, Independence Day, Anzak Day, Canada Day

  Names of the months and the days of the week: January, February, Monday

  Names of seasons may have the article omitted <esp. BrE>: I last saw her in (the) spring. BUT: in the spring of 1999 (see 83).

  670   Geographical names usually have no article.

  Names of continents: (North) America, (mediaeval) Europe, (Central) Australia, (East) Africa

  Names of countries, counties, and states: (modern) Brazil, (Elizabethan) England, (eastern) Kent, (northern) Florida

  Cities and towns: (downtown) Washington, (suburban) Long Island, (ancient) Rome, (central) Tokyo. BUT: The Hague, the Bronx; the City, the West End, the East End (of London)

  Lakes: Lake Michigan, Lake Ladoga, (Lake) Windermere, Loch Ness

  Mountains: Mount Everest, Vesuvius, (Mount) Kilimanjaro. BUT: The Matterhorn

  In combinations of name and common noun denoting buildings, streets, bridges, etc., the second noun usually has the main stress: Hampstead 'Heath. But names ending in Street have the main stress on the first noun: 'Oxford Street.

Madison 'Avenue

Westminster 'Bridge

Park 'Lane

Leicester 'Square

Russell 'Drive

Greenwich 'Village

Reynolds 'Close

Kennedy 'Airport

Portland 'Place

Harvard Uni'versity

BUT: the Albert 'Hall, the Haymarket (a street name in London), the George Washington Memorial Parkway, the Massachusetts Turnpike, the University of London

Proper nouns with the definite article: the Wilsons

  671   Plural names take the definite article: The Netherlands (BUT: Holland), the West Indies, the Bahamas, the Alps, the Canaries, the Channel Islands, the Hebrides, the British Isles, the Himalayas, the Midlands, the Pyrenees, the Rockies, the Wilsons (‘the Wilson family’)

  672   Some geographical names take the definite article.

Rivers: the Amazon, the (River) Avon, the Danube, the Ganges, the Mississippi, the Nile, the Rhone, the Thames

Seas:the Atlantic (Ocean), the Baltic (Sea), the Mediterranean, the Pacific

Canals:the Panama Canal, the Erie Canal, the Suez Canal

  673   Some institutions and other facilities take the definite article.

Hotels, pubs and restaurants: the Grand (Hotel), the Hilton, the Old Bull and Bush, etc.

Theatres, cinemas, etc.: the Apollo Theatre, the Globe, the Odeon, the Hollywood Bowl. BUT: Drury Lane (theatre), Covent Garden (opera house)

Museums, libraries: the Huntingdon (Library), the British Museum, the National Gallery, the Smithsonian Institution, the Uffizi

  674   Newspapers usually take the definite article: The Daily Express, The Independent, The New York Times, The Observer. The article is dropped after genitives: today’s Times. Magazines and periodicals normally have no article: English Today, Language, Nature, Newsweek, New Scientist, Scientific American, Time.

Quantifiers

(see CGEL 5.10–25, 6.45–62)

The grammatical functions of quantifiers

  675   Quantifiers are words such as all, any, some, nobody, which denote quantity or amount (see 70). They can function both as determiners (some people) and pronouns (some of the people).

•  Words like some, no and any can function as determiners (i.e. Group 2 determiners, see 523): some friends.

•  Words like all can function as determiners and can precede the, this, etc. in the noun phrase (i.e. Group 1 determiners, see 524): all the time.

•  Words like few can function as determiners and can follow the, these, etc. (i.e. Group 3 determiners, see 525): the few facts.

Determiners: fewer jobs, less income

  676   The table opposite shows five groups of quantifiers (A–E) and their grammatical functions as determiner or pronoun (alone or with an of-phrase).

Images

  677   •  

Group A determiners (see 75). In the following examples, Group A determiners are printed in bold, and noun phrase heads in SMALL CAPITALS:

All the WORLD will watch the World Cup on TV. (BUT: the whole world is more usual than all the world.)

Every STUDENT must attend ten of the meetings each YEAR.

Both ANSWERS are acceptable.

All, both and each can also occur after their heads. If the head is subject, they have the mid-position of adverbs (see 451):

All his FRIENDS were on vacation.

His friends were all on vacation.

Both of THEM love dancing.

They both love dancing.

Each of the ROOMS have a telephone.

The rooms each have a telephone.

•  Group B determiners (see 697). Some and any can be used as determiners with singular count nouns when they are stressed (on unstressed some, see 523):

There was 'some 'BOOK or other on this topic published last year.

I didn’t have 'any I'DEA they wanted me to make a speech.

In <familiar> style, stressed some means ‘a wonderful’ etc.:

That’s 'some 'CAR you’ve got there!

However, some and any are usually used with plural nouns and mass nouns:

It’s unfair to mention some PEOPLE without mentioning all.

His resignation has been expected for some TIME.

•  Group C determiners (see 80):

The company lost many MILLIONS of dollars.

It’s been spending too much MONEY on speculation.

The chairman asked for more INFORMATION.

The student was a few MINUTES late for the interview.

There are far fewer FACTORIES going to come to our part of the country.

It has been said that good writing is the art of conveying meaning with the greatest possible force in the fewest possible WORDS.

Why is it that some people pay less INCOME TAX than any of us?

Enough can occur both before and after its head:

There hasn’t been enough TIME to institute reforms.

There hasn’t been TIME enough to institute reforms.

•  The group D determiner one:

One is used as an indefinite determiner in such expressions as one day, one morning, one night:

One DAY Katie will change her mind. (‘at an indefinite time’)

One is also a numeral (see 602): One ticket, please and a pronoun (see 680): How does one deal with such problems?

•  Group E determiners:

They had no KNOWLEDGE of secret negotiations.

There were no CONDITIONS laid down in the contract.

Pronouns with an of-construction: all of the time

  678   •  As the table in 676 shows, most of the quantifiers can also be followed by an of-phrase, e.g. all the peopleall of the people:

You can fool all the PEOPLE some of the TIME, and some of the PEOPLE all the TIME, but you cannot fool all the PEOPLE all of the TIME. (Abraham Lincoln in a speech made in 1858)

You see so much of this STUFF in the newspapers nowadays.

Both of is normally followed by a pronoun or a definite noun phrase:

Do sit down, both of YOU.

People seem to have money to spend on entertainment and food, both of WHICH are expensive.

Both of those STORIES originated in newspaper reports.

•  The of-phrase may be omitted if the quantifier acts as a substitute for an earlier noun phrase (see 379):

image

•  Every and no cannot act as pronouns. Instead we use every one and none:

[A] Did you say you pay no INTEREST on this loan? [B] Yes, none at all.

None of the new LAPTOPS have been sold.

(On verb concord after none of, see 513. The corresponding determiner construction would be: No laptop has/No laptops have been sold.)

Pronouns ending in -body, -one, -thing

  679   The following quantifier pronouns are singular and have either personal or non-personal reference:

Images

There are two sets of pronouns with personal reference: one set ending in -body (everybody, somebody, anybody, nobody) and another set ending in -one (everyone, someone, anyone, no one). Both sets with personal reference have a genitive form: everybody’s, everyone’s, etc. There is no difference of meaning between the two sets. Here are some examples:

Everybody says Dr Barry is an unusual woman.

Everybody made their contribution to the good cause. (On concord here, see 513.)

We chatted about the news, and so did everyone else in the department.

I first heard this thing mentioned by somebody else.

Someone must have seen what happened.

Are you writing this paper in collaboration with someone? (on some-forms in questions, see 243)

If anybody rings I’ll say you’re too busy to come to the phone.

We wouldn’t be on speaking terms with anyone if we made this proposal.

Is there anyone we can give a lift?

Money isn’t everything.

Give me something to do that’s in line with what I like doing.

One: Are there any good ones?

  680   One is a numeral (see 602) and a pronoun. The pronoun one has three uses:

•  The pronoun one can follow certain other quantifiers and can be followed by of (see 678):

What is happening in this country now concerns every one of us. (with every and one written as separate words)

There are many ways of making an omelette, only one of WHICH is right.

With each and any, one is optional:

The doctors came to each (one) in turn and asked how the patients felt.

•  As a pronoun, one (with the plural form ones) may substitute for an indefinite noun (see 380):

I want A MAP of Tokyo – but a really good one.

We haven’t got A TEXTBOOK of our own. We use English and American ones.

•  As an indefinite personal pronoun, one means ‘people in general’ (see 98). In this use one has a genitive form one’s and a reflexive form oneself:

I’ve always believed in having the evenings free for doing one’s hobbies.

This is just a journey one does by oneself.

Questions

(see CGEL 11.4–23)

Different types of questions

  681   There are direct and indirect questions:

image

Indirect questions are always signalled by an interrogative word such as how or what. But direct questions need not contain an interrogative word (on interrogative words, see 536; on indirect questions, see 259).

We also distinguish between yes–no questions, wh-questions and tag questions (see 241).

Yes–No questions: Did you find the file?

  682   The answer to a yes–no question is yes or no, which explains its name. To make a statement into a yes–no question, put the operator (will, is, etc.) before the subject (the operator is printed in small capitals):

Jane WILL be in the office later today.

WILL Jane be in the office later today?

Yes–no questions usually have rising intonation (see 40):

image

The last example has the ‘dummy operator’ does (see 611). A form of do has to be used here because there is no operator in the corresponding statement:

∼ Joan still lives in Australia.

Wh-questions: How are you feeling today?

  683   Wh-questions begin with an interrogative word: who, what, when, etc. (see 536) and normally have falling intonation. Starting from a statement, this is how to form wh-questions: Put the sentence element which contains the wh-word at the beginning of the sentence. If the element containing the wh-word is object, complement or adverbial, place the operator (i.e. the first auxiliary in a verb phrase or the finite verb be) in front of the subject.

•  Wh-element is object:

image

The operator normally comes just after the wh-element. In these examples the do-construction has to be used, because the corresponding statements have no operator.

•  Wh-element is complement:

image

•  Wh-element is adverbial:

image

•  Wh-element is subject. If the element containing the wh-word is the subject, the verb phrase remains the same as in the corresponding statement, and no inversion or do-construction is necessary (see 611):

image

See 659 on cases where the wh-element is a prepositional complement:

image

Tag questions: Anna’s a doctor, isn’t she?

  684   Tag questions are tagged on to the end of a statement (see further 245):

Anna’s a doctor, isn’t she?

[1]

Anna isn’t a doctor, is she?

[2]

Tag questions are shortened yes–no questions and consist of operator plus pronoun, with a negative (isn’t she in [1]) or without a negative (is she in [2]). The choice of operator depends on the preceding verb phrase. The pronoun repeats or refers back to the subject of the statement. Usually the tag question is in a separate tone unit:

image

Reciprocal pronouns

(see CGEL 6.31)

  685   We can bring together two sentences such as Ann likes Bob and Bob likes Ann into a reciprocal structure:

EITHER:

Ann and Bob like each other.

OR:

Ann and Bob like one another.

Each other and one another are both reciprocal pronouns:

We looked at each other.∼ We looked at one another.

Each other is the more frequent alternative, but when more than two people or things are involved, one another is often preferred:

Their children are all quite different from each other.

People have to learn to trust one another.

The reciprocal pronouns can be used in the genitive:

They exchange favours – they literally scratch each other’s backs.

They are two people who have chosen to share one another’s lives in an intimate and committed relation.

Relative clauses

(see CGEL 6.32–35, 17.10–25)

The grammatical function of relative clauses

  686   The main function of a relative clause is to modify a noun phrase (see 595):

They read every BOOK that they could borrow in the village.

Here the relative clause is that they could borrow in the village. The relative pronoun that points back to the head of the noun phrase (book), which is called the antecedent (printed in small capitals).

The term relative clause is used for various types of subclauses which are linked to the main clause. The linking is achieved with a back-pointing element (see 84), usually a relative pronoun (but see 592 on nominal relative clauses). The relative pronouns are who, whom, whose, which, that, and zero (a ‘zero pronoun’ is not expressed). Although a zero pronoun is not pronounced, it still ‘exists’ in that it fills a grammatical position in the clause. These two sentences are alternatives:

The RECORDS which he owns are mostly classical.

[The relative pronoun which functions as object of owns]

∼ The RECORDS he owns are mostly classical.

[The zero relative pronoun functions as object of owns]

The choice of relative pronouns

  687   There are several relative pronouns to choose from. The choice depends on different factors.

•  The choice of relative pronoun depends on whether the clause is restrictive or non-restrictive (see 110).

Restrictive relative clause:

image

Non-restrictive relative clause:

image

•  The choice of relative pronoun also depends on whether the head of the noun phrase (i.e. the antecedent) is personal or non-personal.

Personal antecedent:

This is the message we want to communicate to the MEN AND WOMEN who will soon be going to help the hunger-stricken areas.

Non-personal antecedent:

We need to find a HOUSE which is big enough for our family.

•  The choice of relative pronoun also depends on what role the pronoun has in the relative clause: whether it is subject, object, etc. This determines the choice between who and whom.

Relative pronoun as subject:

Have you met the MAN who is going to marry Diana?

[1]

Relative pronoun as object (note that the object, when it is a relative pronoun, is fronted, i.e. is placed before the subject, not after the verb):

Have you met the MAN whom Diana is going to marry? <formal>

[2]

Instead of the <rather formal> whom in [2], we can also have who [2a] or, more common, zero (i.e. who omitted), as in [2b]:

Have you met the MAN who Diana is going to marry? <less formal, rare>

[2a]

Have you met the MAN Diana is going to marry? <informal>

[2b]

Relative pronouns as prepositional complement

  688   There is an even greater choice of constructions when the relative pronoun acts as prepositional complement (see 659):

Do you know the MAN Diana is engaged to? <informal>

∼ Do you know the MAN who Diana is engaged to? <less formal, rare>

∼ Do you know the MAN whom Diana is engaged to? <formal, rare>

∼ Do you know the MAN to whom Diana is engaged? <very formal>

Once again, the relative pronoun is fronted, and the preposition may or may not precede. However, the construction preposition + relative pronoun may be the only one available, as in

Maurice wrote me a LETTER in which he said: ‘I’m not interested in how long a bee can live.’

In other cases, the construction with the end-placed, ‘stranded’ preposition (see 659) may be the only one available:

The PLAN they’ve come up with is an absolute winner.

The uses of relative pronouns

  689   The uses of relative pronouns are given in this table:

Images

We will now discuss the use of three forms of relative pronouns: wh-pronouns, that, and zero.

Wh-relative pronouns

  690   The wh-relative pronouns are who, whom, whose and which. They reflect the personal/non-personal gender of the antecedent (printed in SMALL CAPITALS):

•  who, whom for personal:

There’s a MAN outside who wants to see you.

•  which for non-personal:

I want a WATCH which is absolutely waterproof.

But this distinction does not exist with whose. If a pronoun is in a genitive relation to a noun head, the pronoun can have the form whose for both personal and non-personal antecedents:

My FRIEND whose car we borrowed is Danish.

They came to an old BUILDING whose walls were made of rocks.

In the examples where the antecedent is non-personal (such as CARS, BUILDING), there is some tendency to avoid the use of whose by using the of-phrase, but this construction can be awkward and <formal>:

∼ They came to an old BUILDING the walls of which were made of rocks. <formal>

That and zero as relative pronouns

  691   That is used with both personal and non-personal reference. However, it cannot follow a preposition, and is not usually used in non-restrictive relative clauses. The zero relative pronoun (i.e. with no pronoun expressed) is used like that, but it cannot be the subject of a clause.

•  That as subject cannot be left out:

The POLICE OFFICER that caught the thief received a commendation for bravery.

•  But that as object or prepositional complement can be left out:

The MAN (that) he caught received a jail sentence.

This is the kind of PROBLEM (that) I can live with.

Restrictive relative clauses

  692   All the relative pronouns can be used in restrictive relative clauses, particularly that and the zero relative, but also who (whom, whose) and which.

We can now complete the picture of the possible choices among all the relative pronouns in restrictive clauses by six sets of examples.

•  Relative pronoun as subject and with personal antecedent:

He is the sort of PERSON who always answers letters.

∼ He is the sort of PERSON that always answers letters.

•  Relative pronoun as subject and with non-personal antecedent:

This author uses lots of WORDS which are new to me.

∼ This author uses lots of WORDS that are new to me.

•  Relative pronoun as object and with personal antecedent:

Our professor keeps lecturing on AUTHORS who nobody’s ever read.

∼ Our professor keeps lecturing on AUTHORS that nobody’s ever read.

∼ Our professor keeps lecturing on AUTHORS nobody’s ever read.

∼ Our professor keeps lecturing on AUTHORS whom nobody’s ever read. <formal>

•  Relative pronoun as object and with non-personal antecedent:

I need to talk to you about the E-MAIL which you sent me.

∼ I need to talk to you about the E-MAIL that you sent me.

∼ I need to talk to you about the E-MAIL you sent me.

•  Relative pronoun as prepositional complement and with personal antecedent:

I know most of the BUSINESSMEN that I’m dealing with.

∼ I know most of the BUSINESSMEN I’m dealing with.

∼ I know most of the BUSINESSMEN with whom I am dealing. <formal>

∼ I know most of the BUSINESSMEN whom I am dealing with. <formal, rare>

∼ I know most of the BUSINESSMEN who I am dealing with. <rare>

•  Relative pronoun as prepositional complement and with non-personal antecedent:

Is that the ORGANIZATION which she referred to?

∼ Is that the ORGANIZATION that she referred to?

∼ Is that the ORGANIZATION she referred to?

∼ Is that the ORGANIZATION to which she referred? <formal>

Non-restrictive relative clauses

  693   Only wh-pronouns are usually used in non-restrictive clauses. The meaning of a non-restrictive relative clause is often very similar to the meaning of a coordinated clause (with or without conjunction), as we indicate by paraphrases of the examples (on intonation and punctuation here, see 111):

Then I met a GIRL, who invited me to a party.

∼ Then I met a girl, and she invited me to a party.

Here is JOHN SMITH, who I mentioned to you the other day.

∼ Here is John Smith: I mentioned him to you the other day.

In non-restrictive clauses which is sometimes followed by a noun, and therefore functions as a relative determiner instead of a relative pronoun:

The fire brigade is all too often delayed by traffic congestion, and arrives on the scene more than an hour late, by which TIME there is little chance of saving the building.

Sentence relative clauses

  694   The sentence relative clause is a special type of non-restrictive clause. It does not point back to a noun but to a whole clause or sentence. The relative pronoun in sentence relative clauses, which have the function of sentence adverbial (see 461), is which:

THE COUNTRY IS ALMOST BANKRUPT, which is not surprising. (‘and this is not surprising’)

WE’VE GOT FRIDAY AFTERNOONS OFF, which is very good. (‘and that is very good’)

Sentences

(see CGEL 10.1, 11.1–2, 13.3)

Clauses and sentences

  695   Sentences are units made up of one or more clauses (see 486). Sentences containing just one clause are called simple, and sentences containing more than one clause are called complex. Here are two simple sentences:

Sue heard an explosion.

She phoned the police.

•  They may be joined into a complex sentence by coordination (see 515), i.e. combining the two clauses by and:

Sue heard an explosion and (she) phoned the police.

•  The two simple sentences can also be joined into a complex sentence by subordination (see 709), i.e. making one clause into a main clause and the other into a subclause:

When Sue heard an explosion, she phoned the police.

Four kinds of sentence

  696   A simple English sentence, i.e. a sentence consisting of only one clause, may be a statement, a question, a command, or an exclamation.

Statements are sentences in which the subject generally comes before the verb (but see fronted topic, 411):

I’ll speak to the manager today.

Questions (see 681) are sentences which differ from statements in one or more ways:

•  The operator is placed immediately before the subject:

Will you see him now?

•  The sentence begins with an interrogative word (see 536):

Who do you want to speak to?

•  The sentence has subject + verb order but with rising intonation in <spoken> English (see 40, 244) and ending with a question mark in <written> English:

You’ll speak to the mánager today?

Commands (see 497) are sentences with the verb in the imperative, i.e. the base form of the verb (see 573). In <written> English, command sentences do not normally end with an exclamation mark, but with a full stop (period):

Call him now.

Commands usually have no expressed subject but sometimes take the subject you (see 497):

(You) speak to the manager today.

Exclamations (see 528) are sentences which begin with what or how, without inversion of subject and operator. In <written> English, exclamations usually end with an exclamation mark (!):

What a noise they are making in that band!

Communication in complete sentences is typical of <formal> or <written> language. In <speech> and <informal writing> it is common to use less fully structured units with the verb and other parts are omitted (see 254, 299): What a noise!, Careful!, More coffee anyone?

Some-words and any-words

(see CGEL 6.59–62, 10.60–63)

  697   Some and any can function both as determiners (see 522) and pronouns (see 661). In both functions the choice between some and any depends on the grammatical context: some is the normal word in positive statements, and any is the normal word after negatives and in yes–no questions:

Ann has bought some new records.

[positive statement]

Ann hasn’t bought any new records.

[after a negative]

Has Ann bought any new records?

[yes–no question]

There are a number of other items which behave like some and any in this respect. Therefore we need to distinguish two classes of words, which we call some-words and any-words:

•  Some-words are: some, someone, somebody, something, somewhere, sometime, sometimes, already, somewhat, somehow, too (adverb of addition)

•  Any-words are: any, anyone, anybody, anything, anywhere, ever, yet, at all, either

  698   The following table illustrates the contrasts between matching some- and any-words.

Images

There are similar contrasts between between already and yet, between still and any more or any longer, and between somehow and in any way:

The guests have arrived already.

∼ The guests haven’t arrived yet. ∼ Haven’t the guests arrived yet?

She’s still at school.

∼ She isn’t at school any longer. ∼ She is no longer at school.

In negative clauses, any-words follow not and its shortened form n’t, and also other negative words such as nobody, no, scarcely, etc. (see 585):

Nobody has ever given her any encouragement.

When any-words are stressed and have inclusive meaning (see 77) they can occur also in positive statements:

Ànyone can do thát!

Phone me 'any time you like.

Any customer can have a car painted any colour that he wants so long as it is black. [Henry Ford on the Model T Ford, 1909]

Any-words in other contexts

  699   There are also other grammatical contexts where any-words occur:

•  In yes–no interrogative subclauses:

I sometimes wonder whether examinations are any use to anyone.

•  In conditional clauses (see 210):

If there is anything we can do to speed up the process, do let us know.

•  After verbs with negative implication, such as deny, fail, forget, prevent:

Some historians DENY that there were any Anglo-Saxon invasions at all.

I’m sorry that my work PREVENTS me from doing anything else today.

•  After adjectives with negative implication, such as difficult, hard, reluctant:

I think it’s DIFFICULT for anyone to understand what the senator means.

I really feel RELUCTANT to take on any more duties at this time.

•  After prepositions with negative implication, such as against, without:

Mrs Thomas can hold her own AGAINST any opposition. The bill is expected to pass WITHOUT any major opposition.

•  With comparisons (see 500) and constructions with as and too:

Naomi sings this very difficult part BETTER THAN anyone else. (‘Nobody sings this part better.’)

It’s TOO late to blame anyone for the accident.

Spelling changes

(see CGEL 3.5–10, 5.81, 5.113, 7.79)

  700   There are some changes in the spelling of endings of nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. It will be convenient to deal with all such spelling changes here in one place. They involve three types of change: replacing, adding, and dropping letters.

Replacing letters: carrycarries

  701   Changing y to ie or i. Y is kept after a vowel, as in play ∼ played, journey ∼ journeys, but in bases ending in a consonant + y:

•  y becomes ie in verbs before 3rd person singular present -s (see 574): they carry ∼ she carries

•  y becomes ie in nouns before plural -s (see 635): one copy ∼ several copies

•  y becomes i in adjectives before comparative -er or -est (see 500): early ∼ earlier ∼ earliest

•  y becomes i in adverbs before the -ly used to form adverbs from adjectives (see 464): easy ∼ easily

•  y becomes i in verbs before -ed (see 574): they carry ∼ they carried

In three verbs there is a spelling change from y to i also after a vowel: laylaid, paypaid, saysaid. In said there is also a change of vowel sound: /seI/ ∼ /sed/.

Changing -ie to -y. Before the -ing ending (see 574), -ie is changed to -y:they die ∼ they are dying

Adding letters: boxboxes

Adding e to nouns and verbs ending in sibilants

  702   Unless already spelled with a final silent e, bases ending in sibilants receive an additional e before the -s endings. The sibilants are /z/, /s/, /dʒ/, /t∫/, /ʒ/, /∫/. The added e occurs

•  in the plural of nouns: one box ∼ two boxes, one dish ∼ two dishes

•  in the 3rd person singular present of verbs: they pass ∼ she passes, they polish ∼ he polishes

Adding e to nouns ending in -o

Some nouns ending in -o have the plural spelled -oes, such as: echoes, embargoes, goes, heroes, noes, potatoes, tomatoes, torpedoes, vetoes. Many nouns ending in -o can have either -oes or -os, for example: archipelagoes or archipelagos, cargoes or cargos. The plural -os spelling is always used after a vowel (radios, rodeos, studios, etc.) and in abbreviations: hippos (~ hippopotamuses), kilos (~ kilograms), memos (~ memorandums), photos (~ photographs), pianos (~ pianofortes).

An additional -e is also added in two irregular verbs ending in -o: they do /duImages/ ∼ she does /dΛz/, they go /goʊ/ ∼ she goes /goʊz/

Doubling of consonants: hot hotter hottest

  703   Final consonants are doubled when the preceding vowel is stressed and spelled with a single letter

•  in adjectives and adverbs before -er and -est:

image

•  in verbs before -ing and -ed:

image

Normally there is no doubling when the vowel is unstressed (as indicated by the examples in the righthand column), but in <BrE> -l is doubled also in an unstressed syllable:

image

Dropping letters: hope hoping hoped

  704   If the base ends in silent -e, the e is dropped

•  in adjectives and adverbs before -er and -est:

image

•  in verbs before -ing and -ed:

image

Compare the spelling of

image

Verbs ending in -ee, -ye, -oe, and often -ge, do not drop the e before -ing (but they drop it before -ed):

image

Subjects

(see CGEL 10.6, 10.18–26)

  705   •  The subject of a clause is generally a noun phrase (see 595): either a full noun phrase, a name or a pronoun:

The secretary will be late for the meeting.

Jane will be late for the meeting.

She will be late for the meeting.

The subject can also be a non-finite clause (see 593):

Playing football paid him a lot more than working in a factory.

or a finite nominal clause (see 589):

That there are dangers to be dealt with is inevitable.

Starting a sentence with such a long clause makes it ‘top-heavy’ and it is more common to have a construction with introductory it (see 542):

∼  It is inevitable that there are dangers to be dealt with.

• The subject normally occurs before the verb in statements:

They have had some lunch.

In questions, the subject occurs immediately after the operator (see 609):

Have they had any lunch?

•  The subject has number and person concord with the finite verb (see 509):

I’m leaving. ∼ The teacher is leaving.

With modal auxiliaries there is no difference in the form of the verb:

I must leave. ∼ The teacher must leave.

•  The most typical function of a subject is to denote the actor, i.e. the person, event, etc. causing the happening denoted by the verb:

Joan drove Ed to the airport.

•  When an active sentence is turned into a passive sentence (see 613), the subject of the active sentence becomes the agent of the passive. The agent is introduced in a by-phrase, but the agent need not be expressed (see 616):

Everybody rejected the proposal.

~  The proposal was rejected (by everybody).

Subjunctives

(see CGEL 3.58–62)

Productive subjunctives

  706   After a verb like demand or insist followed by a that-clause as complement we may find two different verb constructions:

Mary insists that John left before she did.

[1]

Mary insists that John leave immediately.

[2]

The reason is that insist has two different meanings: in [1] it means declare firmly’ and the verb in the that-clause is the normal past form (left); in [2] it means ‘demand insistently’ and the following verb is in the subjunctive, which is the uninflected base form (leave). We call this second construction the ‘mandative’ subjunctive, or the productive subjunctive (to mark it as different from subjunctives that are formulaic expressions like Come what may, see 708). The subjunctive is used after governing expressions which express will (or volition). They are verbs like insist, adjectives like insistent and nouns like insistence.

•  Here are some verbs which govern a subjunctive in the following that-clause: advise, ask, beg, decide, decree, demand, desire, dictate, insist, intend, move, order, petition, propose, recommend, request, require, resolve, suggest, urge, vote.

Examples:

Some committee members asked that the proposal be read a second time.

Public opinion demanded that an inquiry be held.

Ann suggested that her parents stay for supper.

Employers have urged that the university do something about grade inflation.

Then I called her up and proposed that she telephone her lawyer.

•  Adjectives which are often followed by a verb in the subjunctive can have a personal subject. Examples are: anxious, determined, eager:

She was eager that the family stay together during the storm.

Adjectives with a subjunctive verb can also have an impersonal it-construction, for example advisable, appropriate, desirable, essential, fitting, imperative, important, necessary, preferable, urgent, vital:

It is important that every member be informed about these rules.

•  Nouns which take a following verb in the subjunctive are, for example, condition, demand, directive, intention, order, proposal, recommendation, request, suggestion:

The Law Society granted aid on the condition that he accept any reasonable out-of-court settlement.

Further offences will lead to a request that the official be transferred or withdrawn.

The use of the uninflected base form means there is lack of the usual concord between subject and finite verb in the 3rd person singular present. Also, there is no distinction between present and past tenses (see 740). The use of the subjunctive is more common in <AmE> than in <BrE>, and in <written, formal> than in <spoken> English.

Alternatives to the subjunctive

  707   •  There is an optional construction, putative should (see 280), which in <BrE> is more common than the subjunctive. Compare the following should-constructions [1a, 2a] as alternatives to the subjunctive construction [1, 2]:

Public opinion demanded that an inquiry be held.

[1]

∼Public opinion demanded that an inquiry should be held.

[1a]

Ann suggested that her parents stay for supper.

[2]

∼Ann suggested that her parents should stay for supper.

[2a]

•  <BrE> has in fact a third option, the indicative, which is rarer in <AmE>:

The inspector has demanded that the vehicle undergoes rigorous trials to test its efficiency at sustained speeds.

It is essential that more decisions are taken by majority vote.

•  To avoid the somewhat <formal> subjunctive [3a] there is the further possibility of a construction with for + infinitive [3b]:

It is important that every member be informed of these rules.

[3a]

It is important for every member to be informed of these rules.

[3b]

Formulaic and were-subjunctives

  708   •  The subjunctive constructions discussed so far are fully productive and quite common, especially in <written AmE>. There is also a formulaic subjunctive, but is used only in certain set expressions. It consists of the base form of the verb:

Come what may, I’ll be there. (‘whatever happens’)

Heaven help us! (an exclamation of despair)

•  There is also another type of construction, the were-subjunctive (see 277), where were is used (instead of the expected was):

If I were you, I wouldn’t do it.

The were-subjunctive occurs in clauses expressing a hypothetical condition (especially if-clauses) or after verbs such as wish. Usually the expected form was can also be used, and is more common in <informal> style:

If the road were/was wider, there would be no danger of an accident.

Sometimes I wish I were/was someone else!

Subordination

(see CGEL Chapter 14)

What is subordination?

  709   Two clauses in the same sentence may be related either by coordination or subordination. Compare these two sentences:

Joan arrived at the office by ten but no one else was there. [coordination]

Joan arrived at the office by ten before anyone else was there. [subordination]

In coordination, the two clauses are ‘equal partners’ in the same structure:

Images

  710   A subclause can also have another subclause inside it, which means that the first subclause behaves as a ‘main clause’ with respect to the second subclause. For example, the sentence I know that you can do it if you try is made up of three clauses, each within the other:

Images

Subclauses can have various functions in their main clause. They may be subjects, objects, adverbials, prepositional complements, postmodifiers, etc.

Finite, non-finite and verbless subclauses

  711   A main clause is almost always a finite clause. A subclause, on the other hand, can be a finite, non-finite, or verbless clause:

•  A finite subclause (see 492)

This news came after the stockmarket had closed.

•  A non-finite subclause (see 493)

No further discussion arising, the meeting was brought to a close.

•  A verbless subclause (see 494):

Summer vacation then only weeks away, the family was full of excitement.

All three types of clause (finite, non-finite, and verbless) may of course themselves have subclauses inside them. Here is a non-finite clause containing a finite subclause:

[Driving home [after I had left work]], I accidentally went through a red light.

Here is a verbless clause containing a non-finite subclause:

[Never slow [to take advantage of an opponent’s weakness]], the Australian moved ahead confidently to win the fourth set.

Signals of subordination

  712   A subclause is not usually capable of standing alone as the main clause of a sentence. Subclauses are usually marked as subclauses by some signal of subordination. The signal may be

•  that, which is often omitted (‘zero that’):

I hope (that) the department will cooperate on this project.

•  another subordinating conjunction, for example before, if, when (see 207):

I wouldn’t have been at all surprised if the entire roof had collapsed.

•  a wh-word (see 536):

I asked Jessica why she wanted to move to another university.

•  inversion, which is <rather formal> and can always be replaced by an if-clause (see 278):

Had I been a royal princess, they couldn’t have treated me better.

If I had been a royal princess, they couldn’t have treated me better.

•  lack of a finite verb, but for example a to-infinitive, as in:

I hope to phone you back at the very beginning of next week.

Apart from that-clauses with that omitted (including relative clauses, see 691), there is only one type of subclause that contains no expressed signal of subordination. This is a comment clause (see 499):

He must be at least sixty years old, I suppose.

It can be related to the main clause of a that-clause:

∼  I suppose (that) he must be at least sixty years old.

The various uses of subordinating conjunctions are discussed in Part Two (see 360). Some subordinating conjunctions (after, as, before, but, like, since, till, until) also function as prepositions (see 654). Compare:

image

Simple subordinating conjunctions

  713   We can distinguish between simple, compound, and correlative conjunctions.

Here are some simple subordinating conjunctions: after, although, as, because, before, however, if, like <familiar>, once, since, that, though, till, unless, when, whenever, where, wherever, whereas, whereby, whereupon, while, whilst <especially BrE>.

After we had arrived at the airport we had to wait for over two hours.

Although extensive inquiries were made at the time, no trace was found of any relatives.

A stranger came into the hall as the butler opened the front door.

The party opposed the aircraft because they were out of date.

The election result was clear before polling closed. Paul seemed a bit moody, like he used to be years ago. <familiar> [many people prefer as to like here]

Once you begin to look at the problem there is almost nothing you can do about it.

I’m ashamed that I can’t remember my new colleague’s first name.

Hadn’t we better wait till Samantha arrives?

You can’t be put on probation unless you are guilty.

You will not be transferred until they get someone to take your place.

You have to crack the head of an egg when you take it out of the pan – otherwise it goes on cooking.

She said I could use her notebook computer whenever I wanted.

I don’t know where to start.

Wherever I go I hear you’ve been very successful.

They need some facts and figures whereby they can assess alternative strategies.

After the adjournment, the lawyer requested Parker to visit him, whereupon Parker burst into tears. <formal and rare>

I’ve got a colleague taking my classes while I’m away, you see.

We must realize that whilst God could erect a cocoon around us to protect us, our faith would be worthless if he did. <whilst is especially BrE and rare>

Compound subordinating conjunctions

  714   Compound subordinating conjunctions contain more than one word, although one of these words may be omitted if it is that. We can distinguish the following types:

•  Compound conjunctions ending with that, where that cannot be omitted: except that, in order that (in order to with infinitives), in that, so that, such that.

The horse reared and threw the officer from the saddle, except that one booted foot caught in the stirrup.

Did you consider the fact that your brother possibly died in order that you can live? <formal and rare>

Dr Bird’s research is important in that it confirms the existence of a relationship between smoking and cancer.

I try to have a look at the student files so that I know what everybody’s doing.

We’re all trying to pull our wits together to submit papers such that the university will pay our fares to the congress next year. <rather formal>

•  Compound conjunctions ending with that, where that may be omitted. Most of these compound conjunctions are <rather formal>: assuming (that), considering (that), granting (that), granted (that), now (that), provided (that), providing (that), supposing (that).

By the end of next year, assuming (that) a general business recovery gets under way, interest rates should begin to edge upwards again.

Granting (that) there are only a few problems to be solved, these problems make great demands.

The grass in the meadows was growing fast, now (that) the warm weather was here.

The government will endorse increased support for public education, provided (that) such funds can be received and expended.

  715   •  Compound conjunctions ending with as: as far as, as long as, as soon as, insofar as, inasmuch as <very formal>, so as + to-infinitive, so far as, so long as.

As far as we were aware, the party had not officially opposed the bill’s passage.

Like Caesar he has only one joke, so far as I can find out.

This is a solution most people try to avoid, as long as they can see an alternative approach to the problem.

Librarians perform a teaching and research role inasmuch as they instruct students formally and informally and advise and assist faculty in their scholarly pursuits. <formal>

Insofar as science generates any fear, the fear stems chiefly from the fact that new unanswered questions arise. <formal>

Our politicians generally vote so as to serve their own constituency.

•  Compound subordinating conjunctions ending with than, e.g. rather than + a non-finite clause:

It was an audience of at least a couple of thousand who came to hear music rather than go to the beach. (See 310 on the use of the base form go here.)

•  Other compound subordinating conjunctions: as if, as though, in case

It began to look as if something was going to happen.

Shannon hesitated, as though hunting for words and ways of putting them.

A man like Jess would want to have a ready means of escape in case it was needed.

Correlative subordinating conjunctions

  716   Correlative conjunctions consist of two markers: one marking the main clause, and the other marking the beginning of the subclause. These conjunctions include: if … then, no sooner … than, as … as, so … as, whether … or, the … the. The second marker, if it is that, is sometimes omitted: so … (that), such … (that).

If it is true that new galaxies are forever being formed, then the universe today looks just as it did millions of years ago.

No sooner were the guards posted than the whole camp turned in for a night of sound sleep. <rather formal>

I can be as stubborn as she can.

We are getting such high yields per acre that many farmers are being forced to buy new harvesting machines.

The more you jog, the more you get hooked by the habit of taking regular exercise. (See 233.)

Whetheror … is an exception: here both words mark alternatives in a subclause:

She didn’t care whether she won or not.

The functions of subclauses

  717   Subclauses may function grammatically as subject, object, complement, or adverbial in a main clause.

Subject: What I like doing most in my spare time is playing around with my computer.

Direct object: It may interest you to know that Sue and I are engaged.

Indirect object: I gave whoever it was a drink.

Subject complement: The idea is that we meet and work at George’s place in the mornings.

Object complement: I can’t imagine John overcome with grief.

Adverbial: When we moved to the new town my wife worried that she might not be able to find another job.

Other functions:

Postmodifier in a noun phrase: The friend who shared Kate’s room was an art student.

Complement of a preposition: Their loyalty will depend on which way the wind is blowing.

Complement of an adjective: The curtain was now ready to go up.

Nominal clauses (see 588) can function as subject, object, complement, or complement of a preposition, i.e. in general they can have the same function as noun phrases. (On these and other types of subclauses, see 495.)

Verb patterns

(see CGEL 16.18–85)

Six basic verb patterns

  718   The part of a clause following the verb phrase depends on the verb for its basic structure. For example, we can use the verb find with these different contexts:

I found Sophie in the library.

[‘discover’]

I found Sophie a new job.

[‘obtain’]

I found Sophie to be a very competent person.

[‘judge’]

We distinguish six basic verb patterns in English:

•  SVC Linking verbs with subject complement (719–20):

She is [a doctor].

•  SVO Verbs with one object (721–6):

She wants [some help].

•  SVOV … Verbs with object + verb (727–9):

She wants [you] [to help].

•  SVOO Verbs with two objects (730–2):

She gave [her sister] [some records].

•  SVOC Verbs with object and object complement (733):

She found [the task] [impossible].

•  SV Verbs without object or complement (734):

The door opened.

Within each basic verb pattern, we can distinguish a varying number of subpatterns. It is not possible to list here all the verbs which can occur in each pattern. For this you will need to consult a dictionary. The patterns are given in the active, but where passives (see 613) are common, we also include passive examples.

Linking verbs with subject complement:Sorry I’m late.

  719   A linking verb (also called ‘copular verb’) has a following complement consisting of a noun phrase, an adjective etc. The most common linking verb is be. In the following examples, verbs are printed in italics and complements and objects are indicated by [brackets].

Sorry I’m [late].

Was Scott [a personal friend of yours]?

Among other linking verbs there are two groups: current linking verbs and resulting linking verbs.

•  Current linking verbs (such as appear, feel, look, remain, seem) are like be in that they indicate a state:

Mr Brown always appears [calm and collected].

I never lie [awake] at night.

I hope this will remain [a continuing tradition].

That did not seem [a good idea] to me.

You sound [a bit dubious].

I’d love to go on with this job as long as I can stay [alive on it].

The things that are poisonous we don’t eat, so we don’t know if they taste [nice] or not.

•  Resulting linking verbs, such as become and get, indicate that the role of the verb complement is a result of the event or process described in the verb:

The situation became [unbearable].

Quite unexpectedly, Patricia’s parents fell [sick] and died.

Why did Mr MacGregor get [so angry]?

We have to learn to grow [old] because we are all going to grow [old].

Our neighbour said she’d seen her dog turn [nasty] just once.

  720   •  The complement of a linking verb can be a noun phrase or adjective phrase, as in the examples above, or else a nominal clause (see 588):

The answer is [that we don’t quite know what to do now].

•  The complement of a linking verb can also be an -ed adjective (such as puzzled, depressed) or -ing adjective (such as amusing, interesting):

Some of the spectators looked [rather puzzled].

Dr Barry’s lectures were [not very clear] but [rather amusing].

•  With some verbs, to be can occur between the linking verb and the complement:

There doesn’t seem to be [any trouble with this car].

Everybody seems (to be) [very depressed] at the moment.

What the team did proved (to be) [more than adequate].

•  As a linking verb, be is often followed by an adverbial, particularly an adverbial of place:

I’d like to be [in town] for a few weeks.

Verbs with one object

The object is a noun phrase:Did you phone the doctor?

  721   The object of verbs with one object (ordinary transitive verbs) can be a noun phrase:

Let me just finish [the point].

Where did you hear [that rumour]?

Do you believe [me] now?

Did you phone [the doctor]?

This event caused [great interest] in our little village.

•  The verb may be a phrasal verb, i.e. verb + adverbial particle + object (see 630). When the object is a full noun phrase, it may be placed either before or after the adverbial particle:

They blew up [the bridge]. ∼ They blew [the bridge] up.

If the object is a pronoun, it may only be placed before the particle:

∼ They blew [it] up.

In the passive:

∼ The bridge/It was blown up.

•  The verb may be a prepositional verb, i.e. verb + preposition + object (see 632):

Then the president called on [the governor] to explain why.

As Natasha was going up the stairs, Mr Middleton accidentally bumped into [her].

Andrew came across [someone whose name he had forgotten].

•  The verb may be a phrasal-prepositional verb, i.e. verb + adverbial particle + preposition + object (see 634):

The statement was firm enough to do away with [all doubts].

Like other verbs in this pattern, prepositional verbs and phrasal-prepositional verbs can also appear in the passive:

Then the governor was called on to explain why.

Things like that would increase rather than be done away with.

The object is an infinitive:We agreed to stay overnight.

  722   The object of a transitive verb is often a to-infinitive:

We agreed to stay overnight.

The company has decided to bring out a new magazine.

Don’t expect to leave work before six o’clock.

I’d like to discuss two points in your paper.

I’ve been longing to see you.

Ed brought a manuscript I had promised to check through.

Other verbs which take a to-infinitive as object include (can’t) afford, ask, dislike, forget, hate, hope, learn, love, need, offer, prefer, refuse, remember, try, want.

Help can be used with a to-infinitive or a bare infinitive (i.e. without to):

After her mother died Elizabeth came over to help (to) settle up the estate.

The object is an -ing form:I enjoyed talking to you.

  723   One group of transitive verbs is followed by an -ing form:

We ought to avoid wasting money like this.

Obviously there would be just a few people one would enjoy talking to at the party.

I believe most people dislike going to the dentist.

Why did you stop talking?

Other such verbs are admit, confess, deny, finish, forget, hate, keep, like, loathe, love, prefer, remember, (can’t) bear, (can’t) help, (can’t) stand, (not) mind.

The object is a that-clause:

I agree that the prospects are pretty gloomy.

  724   •  The object of the verb can be a that-clause (where that is often omitted):

I agree (that) the economic prospects are pretty gloomy at the moment.

After school I discovered (that) I hadn’t got any saleable skill.

I always thought (that) you two got on well together.

Passive with introductory it (see 543):

It would still have to be agreed that these acts were harmful.

Other verbs which take a that-clause are: admit, announce, bet, claim, complain, confess, declare, deny, explain, guarantee, insist, mention, object, predict, promise, reply, say, state, suggest, warn, write.

•  After believe, hope, say, suppose and think, the that-clause can be replaced by so:

[A]

Is it worth seeing the manager about the job?

[B]

I believe so./I don’t believe so.

Not may replace a negative that-clause:

[A]

Does that symbol stand for ‘cold front’?

[B]

No, I don’t think it does.

 

∼ No, I don’t think so.

 

∼ No, I think not.

  725   The verb may have a that-clause with putative should (see 280) or a subjunctive verb (see 706). That is rarely omitted in these constructions:

The prosecuting attorney ordered that the store detective (should) be summoned for questioning.

The lawyer requested that the hearing (should) be postponed for two weeks.

The officer suggested that the petitioner (should) be exempt only from combatant training.

Other verbs which can have this construction are ask, command, decide, demand, insist, intend, move, prefer, propose, recommend, require, urge.

The object is a wh-clause:I wondered why we didn’t crash.

  726   •  Some verbs take a finite clause introduced by a wh-word (see 536), such as how, why, where, who, whether or if:

The department asked if/whether it could go ahead with the expansion plans.

We flew in rickety planes so overloaded that I wondered why we didn’t crash.

Other verbs with a wh-clause as object are, for example, care, decide, depend, doubt, explain, forget, hear, mind, prove, realize, remember, see, tell, think. The verbs know, notice and say usually occur in negative sentences:

We don’t know if these animals taste nice or not.

•  Some verbs like forget, know, learn, remember and see can take an infinitive clause introduced by a wh-word:

I don’t know what to do next.

She forgot where to look.

Verbs with object + verb

Verb with object + infinitive:Have you heard Juliet sing?

  727   Many transitive verbs have an object which is followed by another non-finite verb.

•  A few verbs (hear, help, let, make) have an object + infinitive without to:

Have you heard [Professor Cray] [lecture on pollution]?

Just let [me] [finish], will you?

Danielle’s letter made [me] [think].

Help occurs with or without to:

Will you help [me] [(to) write the invitations to the party]?

The to-infinitive is always used in the passive:

The former Wimbledon champion was made [to look almost a beginner].

•  Most verbs which take an object + infinitive have the to-infinitive:

Henrietta advised [Bill] [to get up earlier in the morning].

When Joe Scott was 15 his parents allowed [him] [to attend classes at the Academy of Fine Arts].

Can I ask [Dr Peterson] [to ring you back]?

I want [you] [to get back as soon as possible].

Passive examples are common:

[Bill] was advised by Henrietta [to get up earlier in the morning].

[Mr Bush] is not allowed [to drive a car], but I saw him driving a car!

Some other verbs in this pattern are: believe, force, order, permit, require, teach, tell, urge.

Verb + object + -ing form:We got the machine working.

  728   In the end we got [the machine] [working].

I can’t imagine [Burt] [interrupting anybody].

The announcement left [the audience] [wondering whether there would be a concert].

I resent [those people] [spreading rumours about us].

Other verbs in this pattern include catch, find, hate, like, love, (don’t) mind, prefer, see, stop.

Verb + object + -ed form:We finally got the engine started.

  729   I must get [my glasses] [changed].

We’ve just had [our house] [re-painted].

I like your hair — you’ve had [it] [curled]!

Verbs with this construction include the perceptual verbs feel, hear, see, watch, the volitional verbs like, need, want and the causative verbs get and have.

Verbs with two objects

Both objects are noun phrases

  730   •  The verb has an indirect object + a direct object:

Let me give [you] [an example of this].

Did you manage to teach [the students] [any English]?

I’ll write [Pam] [a little note].

With a verb like offer this construction can be replaced by a direct object + to + noun phrase:

They offered [my sister] [a fine job].

∼ They offered [a fine job] [to my sister].

Passive:

My sister was offered a fine job.

∼ A fine job was offered to my sister.

Other verbs which can take the alternative construction with to include bring, give, hand, lend, owe, promise, read, send, show, teach, throw, write.

•  Verbs like buy, find, get, make, order, save, spare, which can take the construction with an indirect object + a direct object, can have an alternative construction with direct object + for + noun phrase:

I’ll buy [you all] [a drink]. ∼ I’ll buy [a drink] [for you all].

Can I get [you] [anything] ∼ Can I get [anything] [for you]?

•  Some verbs with two objects, such as ask and cost, cannot be replaced by prepositional constructions with to or for:

The interviewer asked [me] [some awkward questions].

In the passive, only the second object (in this example some awkward questions) can appear alone:

I was asked some awkward questions.

There is no corresponding passive with cost:

It’s going to cost [me] [a fortune] to buy all these course books.

Verb + object + that-clause:

The pilot informed us that the flight was delayed.

  731   Verbs like tell have an indirect object + a that-clause (see 589), where that is often omitted:

I told [him] [I’d ring again].

Other such verbs are: advise, assure, bet, convince, inform, persuade, promise, remind, show, teach, warn, write.

So can substitute for the that-clause after tell:

[A]

Did you tell [her] [that I am busy both evenings]?

[B]

Yes, I told [her] [so].

Verb + object + wh-clause: We asked him what he was going to do.

  732   Verbs like tell, teach and ask can have an object + a finite or non-finite wh-clause (see 590):

Perhaps you’d like to tell [us] [what you want].

Nobody taught [the students] [how to use the machines].

The president asked [each department] [whether it could go ahead with the expansion plans].

Passive:

[Each department] was asked [whether it could go ahead with the expansion plans].

Verbs with object and object complement

  733   Verbs such as call, find and consider have an object and an object complement and are called complex-transitive verbs.

•  The complement following the object is a noun phrase in:

Would you call [‘Othello’] [a tragedy of circumstance]?

With some verbs, to be may be inserted before the complement:

We found [Mrs Oliver] (to be) [a very efficient secretary].

All fans considered [Phil] (to be) [the best player on the team].

Passive:

∼ [Phil] was considered (to be) [the best player on the team].

Other such verbs: appoint, elect, imagine, make, name, suppose, think, vote.

•  The complement is more likely to be an adjective with verbs like declare, find, judge, keep, leave, make and wash:

If you do that it will make [Jo] [very angry].

I had to quit because I found [my work in the office] [so dull].

•  With verbs such as believe, feel, imagine, suppose and think, to be is usually inserted before an adjective complement:

Many students thought [the exam] (to be) [rather unfair].

We believed [the accused] (to be) [innocent].

Passive:

∼ [The accused] was believed to be [innocent].

Verbs without object or complement

  734   Verbs which have no object or complement are called intransitive verbs:

Eliza’s heart sank.

Don’t ever give up. (‘surrender’)

Intransitive verbs are usually followed by one or more adverbials:

You are teaching at a college, aren’t you?

The Argentinian leads by three games to one.

Do you go to Dr Miller’s lectures?

He used to come in late in the morning.

Verb phrases

(see CGEL 3.21–56, 4.2–40)

  735   Verb phrases can consist of just the main verb (see 573):

Betsy writes dozens of e-mails every day.

Verb phrases can also contain one or more auxiliary verbs before the main verb. Auxiliary verbs such as be, have, might are ‘helping verbs’ and help the main verb to make up verb phrases:

She is writing long e-mails to her boyfriend.

She has been writing e-mails all morning.

Those e-mails might never have been written, if you hadn’t reminded her.

There are two types of auxiliaries: primary auxiliary verbs and modal auxiliary verbs.

Image

  736   There are three primary auxiliary verbs: do, have, and be. As the table shows, these verbs can also act as main verbs.

•  Do helps to form the do-construction (also called do-support, see 611):

Betsy didn’t write many e-mails.

•  Have helps to form the perfect aspect:

She has written only one e-mail.

•  Be also helps to form the progressive aspect:

She was interviewing somebody or other when it suddenly started to rain.

You must be joking!

•  Be also helps to form the passive:

It has been shown in several studies that these results can be verified.

The modal auxiliary verbs (see 483) help to express a variety of meanings, for example intention (see 141), future time (140) and ability (287):

I was teaching classics and then thought I will cease to teach classics.

I will go abroad and teach English.

If we can catch that train across there we’ll save half an hour.

Finite and non-finite verb phrases

  737   There are two kinds of verb phrase: finite and non-finite.

•  Finite verb phrases may consist of just a finite verb:

He worked very hard indeed.

In finite verb phrases consisting of more than one verb, the finite verb is the first one (was and had in these examples):

He was working for a computer company at the time.

The enemy’s attack had been planned for fifteen years.

The finite verb is the element of the verb phrase which has present or past tense. In the given examples working and been planned are non-finite verb forms, but they function in finite verb phrases: was working and had been planned.

Finite verb phrases occur as the verb element of main clauses and most subclauses (see 709). There is usually person and number concord between the subject and the finite verb. Concord of person is particularly clear with be (see 509): I am ∼ you are ∼ he is. With most finite main verbs, there is no concord contrast except between the 3rd person singular present and all other persons: she reads ∼ they read. Modal auxiliaries count as finite verbs, although they have no concord with the subject: I/you/he/they can do it.

  738   The non-finite forms of the verb are:

•  the infinitive:

(to) call

•  the -ing participle:

calling

•  the -ed participle:

called

Many irregular verbs (see 550) have different forms for the past tense (did, went, etc.) and -ed participle (done, gone, etc.). Regular verbs, however, have the same -ed form for both functions: worked (past tense) and worked (-ed participle). The -ed participle (or ‘past participle’) is so called because of its -ed ending with regular verbs.

Compare finite and non-finite verb phrases:

•  Finite verb phrases

Con works in a laboratory.

She’s working for a degree in physics.

She’ll be working with overseas students.

•  Non-finite verb phrases

I actually like to get up early in the morning.

Liz heard the door open.

When asked to help she never refused.

My father got a degree through working in the evenings.

Having bought this drill, how do I set about using it?

Combinations of verbs

  739   When a verb phrase consists of more than one verb, there are certain rules for how the verbs can be combined. There are four basic verb combinations:

(A)  Modal – a modal auxiliary followed by a verb in the infinitive:

We [can] [do] nothing else.

(B)  Perfect – a form of have followed by a verb in the -ed participle form:

I [have] never [heard] of him since.

(C)  Progressive – a form of be followed by a verb in the -ing form:

We [are] [getting] on well together.

(D)  Passive – a form of be followed by a verb in the -ed participle form:

He [was] never [forgiven] for his mistake.

These four basic combinations may also combine with each other to make up longer strings of verbs in one single verb phrase. The order is then alphabetical: A + B + C + D:

A + B

He must have typed the letter himself.

A + C

He may be typing at the moment.

A + D

The letters will be typed by Mrs Anderson.

B + C

He has been typing all morning.

B + D

The letters have been typed already.

C + D

The letters are being typed, so please wait a moment.

A + B + C

He must have been typing the letters himself.

A + B + D

The letters must have been typed by the secretary.

As we can see in the figure opposite, the verbs in the middle of the phrase serve both as the second part of the previous combination and as the first part of the following combination:

Image

Tense and aspect

  740   By tense we understand the correspondence between the form of the verb and our concept of time (past, present, or future). English has two simple tenses: the present tense (see 116) and the past tense (see 123).

•  The present tense: How are you today?

•  The past tense: Fine thanks, but yesterday I felt awful.

Aspect concerns the manner in which a verbal action is experienced or regarded, for example as complete or in progress. English has two marked aspects: the progressive aspect (see 132) and the perfect aspect (see 125).

•  The perfect aspect: I’ve never felt better, thanks.

•  The progressive aspect: How are you feeling today?

  741   The present and past tenses can form combinations with the progressive and perfect aspects. The letters in [square brackets] denote the basic combinations (see 739).

Present time

•  The simple present: Our teacher uses a blackboard and writes illegible things on it.

•  The present progressive [C]: What’s he writing now?

Past time

•  The simple past: I wrote a letter and got an answer almost by return post.

•  The past progressive [C]: I could neither read what our teacher was writing nor hear what he was saying.

•  The present perfect [B]: Some people I meet at this party have written at least one book – if not two.

•  The present perfect progressive [B + C]: He has been writing books on the Beatles since 1967.

•  The past perfect [B]: The Secretary of State said he had spoken to both sides, urging restraint.

•  The past perfect progressive [B + C]: That’s what people had been saying for a long time.

The passive (see 613) is formed by adding combination type [D], for example:

•  The passive simple past [D]: This book was written for people who have a sense of humour.

•  The passive past perfect [B + D]: The attack on this small friendly nation had been planned for fifteen years.

There is no future tense in English corresponding to the time/tense relation for present and past, but there are several expressions available for expressing future time (see 140), notably the modal auxiliary will.

The operator in the verb phrase

  742   We have now described structures and contrasts of the verb phrase, in terms of modals, tense, aspect, and active-passive. There are also other constructions where the verb phrase plays an important part. For these constructions, the first auxiliary verb of the verb phrase has a special function as operator (see 609–12).

•  In yes–no questions (see 682) the auxiliary verb functions as operator (printed in bold):

Will you be staying long?

•  In negation with not (see 581) the auxiliary verb functions as operator. Compare:

I have received some letters this morning.

∼ I haven’t received any letters this morning.

She speaks fluent French but she doesn’t speak a word of English.

•  Emphasis is frequently produced by do as operator (see 264, 300, 611):

One change was likely to happen. Whether it images happen, I just don’t knòw.

•  The do-construction can be used in imperatives (see 497):

be careful.

•  The operator can stand alone (without the main verb) when it acts as a substitute form (see 384):

[A] Have you seen these photographs? [B] Yes I have, thanks.

Word-classes

(see CGEL 2.34–45)

  743   We can make a distinction between major word-classes and minor word-classes. Check the references here for further information about word classes given elsewhere in this grammar.

Major word-classes

  744   The major word-classes are also called open class words. Major word-classes are ‘open’ in the sense that new members can easily be added. We cannot make a complete inventory of all the nouns in English, because no one knows for sure all the nouns used in English today, and new nouns are continually being formed. The four major word-classes, ordered according to overall frequency in English texts, are:

•  Nouns:

belief, car, library, room, San Francisco, Sarah, session, etc. (see 57, 597).

•  Main verbs:

get, give, obey, prefer, put, say, search, tell, walk, etc. (see 573).

•  Adjectives:

afraid, blue, crazy, happy, large, new, round, steady, etc. (see 440).

•  Adverbs:

completely, hopefully, now, really, steadily, suddenly, very, etc. (see 464).

Minor word-classes

  745   Words that belong to the minor word-classes are also called closed-class words. Minor word-classes are ‘closed’ in the sense that their membership is limited in number, and they can be listed. A minor word-class cannot easily be extended by new additions: for all practical purposes, the list is closed. Minor word-classes (such as determiners, pronouns, and conjunctions) change relatively little from one period of the language to another. Minor word-classes are:

•  Auxiliary verbs:

can, may, should, used to, will, etc. (see 477)

•  Determiners:

a, all, the, this, these, every, such, etc. (see 522)

•  Pronouns:

anybody, she, some, they, which, who etc. (see 661)

•  Prepositions:

at, in spite of, of, over, with, without, etc. (see 657)

•  Conjunctions:

although, and, because, that, when, etc. (see 515, 709)

•  Interjections:

ah, oh, ouch, phew, ugh, wow, etc. (see 299)

  746   Many English word-forms belong to more than one word-class. Some examples:

•  Love is both a verb, as in Do you love me? and a noun, as in What is this thing called love?

•  Since is both a conjunction, as in Since the war ended, life is much better and a preposition, as in Since the war life is much better.

•  Round belongs to five word-classes:

preposition:

Jill put her arms round Jack.

adverb:

All the neighbours came round to admire our new puppy.

adjective:

That’s a nice round sum.

noun:

The champion was knocked out in the second round.

verb:

The cattle were rounded up at the end of the summer.

Zero

  747   We use the term ‘zero’ in grammar to mark the position where an item has been omitted. In the following examples, Ø marks the position of the zero item:

•  Zero that as a relative pronoun (see 686):

Joan is the person Ø I like best in the office.

∼ Joan is the person that I like best in the office.

•  Zero that as a subordinating conjunction (see 712):

I hope Ø you’ll be successful in your new job.

∼ I hope that you’ll be successful in your new job.

•  Zero article with mass nouns and plural count nouns (see 523):

The possession of Ø language is a distinctive feature of the human species.

My best subject at school was Ø languages.

Index

•  References are to section numbers, not pages.

•  Functions or meanings appear in ordinary type (e.g. proportion, female, purpose).

•  Individual words and phrases treated in the Grammar are printed in italics (e.g. proper, because of).

•  Grammatical terms are entered in small capitals (e.g. PROPER NOUN).

•  References to language varieties are given in angle brackets, e.g. <spoken>, <AmE>.

a(n) 827, 466, 468, 473–4, 476, 522–4, 604; = per 167

a bit, see ‘bit

a little, see ‘little

a lot, see ‘lot

ability 287

able, be able to 287

about 186, 192, 657; describing emotions 306; subject matter 239; with ADJECTIVE 437; be about to 147

above 1845, 191, 468–9, 657

absolute 301

absolutely 23, 215, 21719, 222, 253, 270

ABSTRACT NOUNS 679, 106, 434

abstract place meaning 191

abstract quality 448

absurd, the absurd 448

accordingly 206

ACCUSATIVE, seeOBJECTIVE (CASE)

ache 138

acre 64

across 1734, 18890, 192

ACTIVE-PASSIVE RELATION 490, 613–18

activity in progress 132

activity verbs 133

actor 1989

actually 463

adding 355

adding letters 702

addition 2345, 369

ADJECTIVE 436–48, 744

as HEAD 448

as POSTMODIFIER 443, 641, 649

as PREMODIFIER 650

COMPLEMENT 4369, 508, 720

COORDINATION 518

or ADVERB 445–7, 494

or PARTICIPLE 444

PATTERNS 4369

ADJUNCT, seeADVERBIAL

administration, (the) 60, 90

admit 723

admittedly 463

adore 136

ADVERB 165, 195, 212, 445–7, 464–9, 503, 630–1, 744

as COMPLEMENT of a PREPOSITION 469

as MODIFIER of an ADJECTIVE 465

as MODIFIER of an ADVERB 465

as MODIFIER of a DETERMINER 466

as MODIFIER of a NOUN or a NOUN PHRASE 468

as MODIFIER of a NUMERAL 466

as MODIFIER of a PREPOSITION 466

as POSTMODIFIER 641, 648

ADVERB or ADJECTIVE 445–7, 494

ADVERBIAL 129, 406, 449–63, 487–8

CLAUSES 495

COORDINATION 517

in relation to PAST and PRESENT PERFECT 129

LINK 36070

of degree 21523, 459

of duration 1615, 457

of frequency 1669, 458

of manner 1946, 453

of means and instrument 197

of place 17093, 416, 454

of time-when 15160, 456

positions 451–63

advertising 597

advice 689, 597

advice 335

advise 3356, 706, 727, 731

affirmation 264, 266, 269

afford, (can’t) 722

afraid 308, 437, 442

after ADVERB 156, 158;

CONJUNCTION 144, 156, 160, 364, 713

PREPOSITION 156, 469, 657, 712

afterwards 1589

again 159

against 108, 699

AGENT 614–17

ago 129, 158

agree 722

agreement 2703; (= CONCORD) 509–14

AIDS 598

aim 323

ain’t 482

alarm calls 254

all 70, 726, 801, 162, 190, 379, 524, 675–8

all over 190

all right 23, 345

all the same 212

all through 190

allow 325,336, 727

almost 166, 218, 452

along 173, 187, 189, 657

along with 658

already 156, 210, 243, 697–8

also 234, 238, 355, 369

ALTERNATIVE CONDITIONS 214

alternatives 242, 370

although 21112, 361, 713

altogether 21819, 357

always 81, 125, 1656, 169, 210, 243, 458

amazing(ly) 308, 317

ambiguity 112

<AmE>, American English 434

Apology: Excuse me 345

Appearance: It looks like he’s ill 296

Auxiliary verbs: ain’t 482; gotten 481

CONCORD with GROUP NOUNS: The family has … 510

Dates: on August 18th, 2002 607

DURATION: from June through December 163

Getting attention: Pardon me! 350

IRREGULAR VERBS: ate /et/ 571; dove 571; dreamed 555; fit 551; gotten 481, 559; learned 552; sprung 570

Letter endings: Sincerely (yours) 344

Motion: around the corner 188

Names with titles, etc.: Judge Powell 668; writer Ted Johnson 471

PAST when referring to a single event: I didn’t make any lunch yet 125, 156

Place expressions: around here 186

PREPOSITIONS: different than 44, from June through December 44, 163

Requests for repetition: Excuse me? 252

Spelling: travel ~ traveling 703

SUBJUNCTIVE: Congress has voted that the present law continue 282, 706–8

TIME-WHEN: on the weekend 154; I’ll see you Wednesday 155

Times: a quarter of six, ten minutes after six 607

VERBS: ain’t 482; gotten 481

amid 186

among 186, 191

amount 527

amount words 7081, 429, 527

and 189, 360, 371, 515–20

anger 69

animals 945 (GENDER), 106 (GENITIVE)

ANIMATE, seeanimals’, ‘human nouns’, ‘PERSON

another 525

answer 258, 646

answers 24152

ANTECEDENT 686

any 77, 167, 513, 522–3, 676–7; see alsoany-WORDS

any-WORDS 7481, 210, 262, 513, 583, 585, 679, 697–9

any more 156, 698

anybody, anyone 79, 378; see alsoany-WORDS

anyhow 79

anyplace 79

anything, seeany-WORDS

anyway 23, 79, 214, 356

anywhere 79, 697–8

apart from 236

apologies 345

apparently 2967

appeal 646

appear 136, 296, 544, 546, 719

appearance 2967

applause 67, 69, 597

appoint 733

APPOSITION 470–2

APPOSITIVE CLAUSE 641, 646

approval 315

area 175

argument 646

arms 601

army 60

around 186, 188, 469, 657

arrangement 143

arrive 178

ARTICLES 8290, 473–6, 522–3

as 712–13; comparison 196, 228, 699; contrast 211; proportion 233; reason 204, 394; role 224; time 144, 160

asas 226, 232, 507, 716

as far as 715

as for 627, 658

as if 196, 276, 296, 715

as long as 144, 715

asso 233

as soon as 144, 160, 715

as though 196, 715

as well (as) 234, 369

ash(es) 601

ask336, 386, 388, 706, 722, 725–7, 730, 732

ASPECT 11350, 740–1

assume 296

assuming (that) 714

assumption 2967

assure 731

astonishing 317

at 657; emotion 306, 437; place 1712, 1802; role 224; time 152, 154, 157

at-TYPE PREPOSITIONS 1712, 1802

at all 81, 223, 303, 697

attitudes to truth 2937

ATTRACTION 511

ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES 441

audience 60, 510

AUXILIARY VERBS 477–85, 609, 736–7, 745; see alsoMODAL AUXILIARIES

avoid 723

awake 564

away (from) 172, 187, 193, 416, 658

awfully 301

baby 95

BACK-POINTING USE of the 84, this/that 99101

backchannels 23, 249

backward(s) 192

bad 502

badly 223, 503

bar 63, 236

BARE INFINITIVE 422, 493

barely 223, 584

BASE FORM 573, 575

BASIC VERB PATTERNS 489, 718

be COMMANDS 497; FORMS 482; MAIN VERB 384, 416, 482; OPERATOR 609; PASSIVE 614–16; PROGRESSIVE 139; with COMPLEMENT 476

be able to 287

be about to 1467

be certain 294, 546

be going to 1423, 147, 323

be known 546

be on the point of 146

be said 546

be sure 294, 546

be to 1467, 277, 330

bear 565, 723

beat 562

because 200, 202, 204, 207, 394, 713

because of 200, 204, 658

become 491, 561, 719

bed 475

before 144, 156, 15860, 164, 468, 657, 712–13

beforehand 1589

beg336, 706

begin 355, 570

beginning conversation 3423; beginning letters 344

behaviour || behavior 69

behind 1845, 1878

behold 554

belief 2967

believe 136, 296, 442, 587, 724, 727, 733

belong to 137

below 1845, 191, 606, 657

bend 553

beneath 1845, 191

beside 184, 657

besides 234, 356

best 502–3

bet 551, 731

better 3289, 337, 359, 502–3

between 152, 186, 191, 657

beyond 1901

bid 551

billion 604

bind 558

binoculars 600

bit, a bit 63, 71, 81, 217, 221, 303

bite 567

blade (of) 63

bleed 554

block (of) 63

blow 566

-body 467

both 74, 76; DETERMINER 524; QUANTIFIER 676–8

bothand 360, 369, 520

<BrE>, British English 44

ARTICLES: be in hospital, go to university 475

AUXILIARY VERBS: I haven’t any money 480, 609; I’m right, aren’t I? 482; Used he to smoke? 485; You needn’t wait for me 289, 327

CONCORD with GROUP NOUNS: The family were … 510

CONJUNCTIONS: whilst 713

Dates: on 18 August 2002 607

Describing emotions: I was furious with him 306

Do as a SUBSTITUTE 3835

Farewells: Cheerio!, Cheers! 342

Getting attention: Excuse me! 350

IRREGULAR VERBS: ate /et/ 571, dreamt 555, got 559, learnt 552

Letter endings: Yours sincerely 344

Motion: round the corner 188

Negative purpose: In case he should miss the train 203

PREPOSITIONS: different from 44

Prohibition: You oughtn’t to waste329

PUTATIVE should: Public opinion demanded that an enquiry should be held 707

Requests for repetition: Sorry? 252

Spelling: travel ~ travelling 703

TIME-WHEN: at the weekend 154

bread 66

break 564

breakfast 475

breed 554

briefs 600

bring 557, 730

bring about 201

British English 44; see <BrE>

broadcast 551

build 553

bunch (of flowers) 60

burn 552

burst 551

bust 551

but 211, 236, 3601, 515–16, 712

but for 209, 627

buy 447, 557, 608, 730

by 657; AGENT 444, 614–16; means 174, 1979, 453, 475; place 184, 188; time 154, 1567

by any means 303

by means of 658

by the way 354

cake 66

calendar items 144, 669

calf 636

call 733

can 483; COMMANDS 337; permission 325; possibility 2847; PROGRESSIVE 135; prohibition 329; requests 333; suggestions 335

canals 672

capable 287

CARDINAL NUMERALS 525, 602

care 316

cash 597

cast 551

catch 557, 728

cattle 599

CAUSATIVE VERB 198

cause 2012

cause 198202, 365

certain 288, 2945, 438, 546

certainly 23, 288, 463

certainty 28890, 294

change of state 132

changing letters 701

cheap(ly) 447

chess 69

chiefly 472

child 637

choose 564

Christmas 163, 346, 669

chunk(ing) 32, 37

church 475

cinemas 673

cities 180, 670

class (of) 60

class of people 90, 448

classics 598

CLAUSE 486–95, 588–94, 695

APPOSITIVE, seeAPPOSITIVE CLAUSE

COMMENT, seeCOMMENT CLAUSE

COMPARATIVE, seeCOMPARATIVE CLAUSE

COMPLEMENTS 508

CONDITIONAL, seeCONDITIONAL CLAUSE

elements 486–7

FINITE, seeFINITE CLAUSE

functions 486, 495

of AMOUNT 429

of CAUSE 200

of CONTRAST 211

of DEGREE 429

PARTICIPIAL, seePARTICIPLE CLAUSE

of PLACE 170

of REASON 2046

of TIME 151, 160

RELATIVE, seeRELATIVE CLAUSE

clear 294, 447

cleave 571

CLEFT SENTENCES 41922, 496

clergy, the clergy 90

cling 556

close(ly), closer 437, 447

CLOSED-CLASS WORDS 745

club 60

coffee 66

COLLECTIVE NOUNS, seeGROUP NOUNS

college 475

<colloquial> English 45; see also <informal>

colour || color 77

come 416, 549, 561

command 725

COMMANDS 254, 3302, 497–8, 696

COMMENT CLAUSE 32, 308, 495, 499

committee 60, 510

COMMON CORE16

COMMON NOUNS 93, 475

communication 131, 197; verbs of communication 131

COMPARATIVE 22532, 500

COMPARATIVE CLAUSE 429, 495, 505

COMPARATIVE PHRASE 506–7

comparison 22532, 500–7

compel336

COMPLEMENT 446, 487–8, 508

of ADJECTIVE 656

of OBJECT 491

of SUBJECT 491

completely 215, 218, 221

COMPLEX PREPOSITIONS 658

COMPLEX SENTENCES 695

COMPOUND, plural of 635

PREMODIFIERS 651

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS 714–15

compulsion 3268

concern 137, 318

concerned 318

concession 211

conclude 355

CONCORD 509–14

of NUMBER 509–13

of PERSON 514

with COORDINATED SUBJECTS 377, 512

with GROUP NOUNS 60, 510

with INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS OF AMOUNT 513

CONCRETE NOUNS 5766

condition 706

condition 20714, 3668, 3723

CONDITIONAL CLAUSE 144, 20714, 275, 282

condolences 346

confess 723

congratulations 346

CONJUNCT, seeSENTENCE ADVERBIAL

CONJUNCTION 518–19, 709, 745

consequence 2046

consequently 204, 206

consider 296, 442, 476, 733

considerably 217

considering (that) 714

consist of 137

constellation 60

contain 137

content(s) 601

CONTINUOUS, seePROGRESSIVE

CONTRACTED FORMS 29, 478, 582

CONTRACTED NEGATION 582, 610

contrast 21114, 361

contrast + condition 213, 368

CONTRASTIVE FOCUS 399401, 409

CONTRASTIVE TOPIC 413

conversation 20–3, 3423

convince(d) 2945, 437, 731

COORDINATION 26, 36070, 391, 512, 515–20, 695

of clause elements 517

of CLAUSES 515–16

of WORDS 518

COPULA, seeLINKING VERB

corpus data 5

corpus, corpora 639

CORRELATIVE COORDINATION 520

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS 716

cost 137, 551, 730

could 483; permission 325; possibility 2847; QUESTIONS 248; requests 333; suggestions 335

COUNT NOUNS 58, 476, 522–4

COUNTABLE, seeCOUNT NOUNS

countries 95, 180, 670

creep 555

crew 60

criminal 441

crowd 60

cup 63

currency 606

CURRENT LINKING VERBS 719

cut 551

’d 483

daily 167

dance 68

dare 339, 483–4

data 639

dates 607

dawn 475

daybreak 475

deal, a good (great) deal (of) 71, 73, 217, 219, 527, 555

decades 607

decide 282, 706, 722, 725–6

decimals 605

declare 258, 733

decline 338

decree 282, 706

deer 638

DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSE, seeRESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSE

DEFINITE ARTICLE 8290, 93, 473–6

definite frequency 167, 458

definite meaning 82101

definite time 123

definitely 270, 301, 459, 463

degree 215–24, 429

ADVERBS 21517

of likelihood 28392

to what degree? 215

DEICTIC, seePOINTER WORDS

demand 706–7, 725

DEMONSTRATIVES 91, 99101, 423, 521

denial 2619

deny 338, 699, 723

depend on 137

DEPENDENT CLAUSE, seeSUBCLAUSE

deserve 137

desire 136, 706

despite 212

determine(d) 324

DETERMINERS 473–6, 522–7, 596, 624, 675–8, 745

detest 136

different than/from 44

difficult 699

difficulty 68

dig 556

dinner 475

direct(ly) 445

DIRECT OBJECT 431, 608

DIRECT SPEECH3367

direction 189

directive 706

disagreement 271

disappointed 314

disappointment 314

disapproval 316

DISCOURSE MARKERS, DISCOURSE PARTICLES 23, 499

diseases 598

DISJUNCT, seeSENTENCE ADVERBIAL

dislike 136, 309, 722–3

disliking 309

dissuade 338

distance 193

DISTRIBUTIVE WORDS 756

disturbing 318

DITRANSITIVE VERB 489

dive 571

do-CONSTRUCTION 611

do-FORMS 479, 571, 574; MAIN VERB 385, 434; OPERATOR 264, 300, 417, 497, 581, 611–12; SUBSTITUTE 3835

dog 95

do-SUPPORT 611

double 524

DOUBLE GENITIVE 535

doubling consonants 703

doubt 136, 279, 2945, 726

doubt 295

doubtless 294

down 18992, 416, 657

downward(s) 192

dozen 638

draw 571

dream 239, 555

dress, article of 600

drink 570

drive 447, 569

dropping letters 704

due to 658

DUMMY OPERATOR 264, 300, 611–12

duration 119, 1615, 457, 460

during 1523, 157

dusk 475

dwell 552

each 746, 81, 680; DETERMINER 523; QUANTIFIER 379, 675–7

each other 685

earlier 158

early 445

eat 571

ECHO QUESTIONS 2512

-ed CLAUSE 3923, 493, 644

-ed FORM (PARTICIPLE) 422, 444, 493, 573–4, 577, 644, 665, 738

education 69

effect 201

e.g. 358

egg 66

either 778; addition 235; any-WORD 697; CONCORD 513; DETERMINER 523; QUANTIFIER 379, 676

eitheror 370, 512, 520

elder, eldest 502

elect 733

<elevated> language 54, 211, 282, 465, 498, 585

ELLIPSIS 25

else 236, 467

emotion 298318

emotive emphasis in speech 299305

emphasis 299305, 41034, 742

EMPHATIC COMMAND 497

EMPHATIC REFLEXIVE PRONOUN 428, 628

EMPHATIC SENTENCES 300, 612

EMPHATIC so, such 300

EMPHATIC TOPIC 412

END-FOCUS 399401, 4089

END-POSITION 451

END-WEIGHT 4089, 442

ending conversation 342

English, the 579–80

Englishmen 580

enjoy 309, 313, 723

enough 429; ADVERB 465; comparison 230; DETERMINER 523; QUANTIFIER 676; SUBSTITUTE 379

entirely 81, 218, 221, 459

equal 137

equal comparisons 226

-er ending 666

especially 472

essential 438

-est ending 666

even 212, 2368

even if 144, 213

even so 212

even though 211

events 67, 114

EVENT VERBS 11415

ever 81, 125, 210, 262; ADVERBIAL 458; any-WORD 697; comparison 506; frequency 166; INTENSIFIER 302; letters 344; for ever 81

-ever 302, 592

every 746, 801, 167, 523, 676–7

every one (of) 676

everybody, everyone 76, 81, 378, 513, 679

everything 76, 81, 679

everywhere 76, 171

evidence 597

except (for) 236, 627, 658

except that 714

exception 236, 429

EXCLAMATIONS 254, 300, 528, 659, 696

EXCLAMATORY QUESTIONS 304

EXCLUSIVE we 97

excuse 252, 345, 350

expect 722

experience 68

explanation 358

EXPLICIT APPOSITION 472

extent, to what extent? 215

extraordinary 317, 438

fact 646

fact 274

fail 699

faint 442

fairly 217, 221

faithfully 344

fall 416, 571, 719

FALLING TONE 38–9

FALL-RISE TONE 38, 41, 264

false starts 19

<familiar> language 15, 512, 101, 2502, 254, 299, 301, 315, 330, 333, 340, 342, 3467, 349, 465–6, 499, 668, 677, 713

family 60, 378

fantastic 301

far 193, 215, 300, 502–3

farewells 342

farther, farthest 502–3

feed 554

feel 135, 1389, 442, 491, 555, 719, 729, 733

feeling, verb of 136

female 94, 96

FEMININE, seeGENDER’, ‘female’

few, a few, fewer, fewest 713, 801, 379, 417, 504, 507, 525–6, 584, 676–8

fight 557

fillers see DISCOURSE MARKERS

finally 28, 355

find 442, 558, 728, 730, 733

finish 723

FINITE CLAUSE 27, 450, 492, 711

FINITE VERB 737

FINITE VERB PHRASE 737–42

first(ly) 28, 159, 355, 525, 602

FIRST PERSON PRONOUN 97, 377

fish(es) 638

fit 137, 551

flee 554

fling 556

flock 60

fly 571

FOCUS OF INFORMATION 399401, 4089

fond 442

food 66, 597

foot 64, 193, 637–8

for 657; cause 200; contrast 212; duration 157, 1613, 165; INDIRECT OBJECT 608; person affected 307, 437, 439; reason 205; standard 224, 230; subject 593, 645; support 108

for ages 165

for all 212

for ever 165

for example (instance) 358, 472

forbid 338, 571

force 727

forecast 551

FOREIGN PLURAL 639–40

forget 1367, 571, 699, 722–3, 726

<formal> English 459

Addition: in addition 234

AUXILIARY VERBS: He used not to smoke 485; We shall hear141, 328

Cause: on account of icy road conditions200

COMMANDS: Let each nation decide … 498

COMPARISON: better than I 506

CONCORD: Neither of them has …; Everyone thinks he has the answer 513

Condition: In case of emergency call208

Contrast: Althoughyet 361

Contrast: despite, notwithstanding, nevertheless 212

Degree: To what degree (extent)? 215

DEMONSTRATIVES: Richard took up a life similar to that which he had lived … 521

Explanation: e.g., i.e., viz. 358

Frequency: once per day 167; on several occasions 168

‘GIVENTOPIC: Most of these problems a computer could solve easily 414

Good wishes, toasts: Your health! 346

Greetings: How do you do? 342

Hypothetical meaning: If it were to rain277

INTRODUCTORY IT: It is possible that283

INTRODUCTORY THERE: There being no further business … 548

INVERSION, SUBJECT-OPERATOR: Had they known278; Under no circumstances should the door303, 417, 612; subject-verb inversion: Slowly out of its hangar rolled416, 549

Invitations: May I invite you to …? 348

Letters, beginning and ending: Dear Sir, Yours faithfully 344

Listing and adding: firstly, lastly, to conclude 355

Manner, means and instrument: He spoke in a confident manner 194; Pat cooks turkey in the way my mother did 1956

NOMINAL -ING CLAUSES: He was surprised at his family’s/their reacting so sharply 594

Obligation: require 326; shall 328

PARTICIPLE and VERBLESS CLAUSES: Being a farmer, he has373, 3924

Permission: May I speak to you …?; They have permitted him to take325

Place expressions: amid the wreckage 186; within the walls of the castle 177

Promises: Our firm will undertake to339

PRONOUNS, INTERROGATIVE AND RELATIVE: Whom did she marry? 539; the businessmen with whom I am dealing 690–2; PRONOUNS WITH INDEFINITE REFERENCE: One never knows what may happen 98

Proportion: As the equations became more involved, so233

Purpose: in order that 203

QUANTIFIERS, AMOUNT WORDS: many patients 71, 73; a majority (minority) of 71; fewer accidents 526

QUESTIONS: With whom? 250; Whom did she marry? 539

Reason and consequence: consequently, on account of 204; The weather having improved, … 205; accordingly, hence, therefore, thus 206

Regrets: I regret that345

Reinforcement: furthermore 356

Reported prohibitions: They were forbidden to smoke (prohibited from smoking) 338

Requests: Would you kindly334

SUBJUNCTIVE: Whatever be the reasons278, 282, 706–8

SUBORDINATION signalled by inversion: Had I been … 712

SUBSTITUTES: The hole was as big as that made by a rocket 382; As soon as it had refuelled, the plane took off 621; this or that 100

Time-when: subsequently, ultimately 159; within a week 153

Uncontracted forms: Have you not …? 582

Verbless clauses: A man of few words, Uncle George394

Vocatives: Ladies and gentlemen! 34950

Wish: The manager wishes to thank you321

former(ly) 159, 441

FORMULAIC SUBJUNCTIVE 708

fortunate(ly) 308, 438, 463

forward(s) 192, 313

FORWARD-POINTING the 85, this/that 99101

fractions 524, 605

frankly 463

freeze 564

frequency 1669, 458, 460

frequently 81, 166, 458

friendly communications 3418

from 109, 172, 180, 1901, 200, 469, 657

fromthrough (to) 44, 163

front, see ‘in front of

FRONTED TOPIC 41114

FRONTING with so 418

FRONT-POSITION 451

fulfilment of the present 142

fully 459

fund(s) 601

furious 306

furniture 62, 597

further, furthest 502–3, 525

furthermore 3556

future 14050; future in the past 147; future perfect 148; see also ‘will, shall, be going to

games 598

gang 60

garbage 597

GENDER 946, 529, 619

General American 43; see <AmE>

general meaning 749

GENERAL PURPOSELINKS 3714

generalization 357

generally 166, 357, 458

GENERIC REFERENCE 8790, 579–80

GENERIC USE

of ADJECTIVES 90, 448, 579–80

of GROUP NOUNS 90

of NATIONALITY NOUNS 90

of PRONOUNS: one, you, they 98

GENITIVE 1047, 523, 530–5, 594, 664

GENITIVE WITHOUT A HEAD NOUN 534

geographical names 670, 672

geographical varieties 44

GERUND, seeing-CLAUSE

get 491, 559, 617, 719, 728–30

get-PASSIVE 617

give 434, 571, 608, 730

GIVEN INFORMATION 4024

GIVEN TOPIC 414

glasses 600

go 416, 571

going to 1423, 147, 323

good 301, 446, 502

good wishes 346

goose 637

got(ten) 44, 481, 559

government 60, 90, 510

GRADABLE WORDS 216

grand 301

granted, granting (that) 714

grass 62

great 301

greetings 342, 346

grind 558

GROUP GENITIVE 533

GROUP NOUNS 60, 90, 106, 378, 510

group of objects 59

grouse 638

grow 566, 719

habit 118, 120, 291

had (I known …) 278

had better 3289, 335, 337

had to 258, 290, 326

hair 62

half 61, 71, 379, 524, 605, 636, 676

hand 730

hang 556

happen 544

hard 223, 439, 441, 445, 699

hardly 166, 223, 417, 445, 452, 459, 466, 584

hate 136, 309, 722–3, 728

have AUXILIARY 609; FORMS 480–1; MAIN VERB 137, 434, 615, 729

have got 480–1

have got to 288, 3267

‘have’ relation 1034

have to 258, 28890, 3267

he 946, 376, 513, 529, 619–20

HEAD NOUN 596

headquarters 601

health 343, 346, 442

hear 131, 135, 139, 562, 727, 729

hectare 64

hello 346

help 722–3, 727

hence 28, 206

her, hers 523, 620, 623–5

herd 60

here 100, 171, 346, 416, 469

herself 376, 619, 626–8

hesitate, hesitation, see <tentative>

hew 563

hide 567

high 445

him 620

himself 376, 619, 626–8

his 523, 620, 623–5

HISTORIC PRESENT 131

hit 551

hold 554

homeward(s) 192

homework 67

honestly 23

hope 136, 139, 312, 314, 386, 722, 724

hopefully 308, 312, 463

hospital 475

hospitality 597

hotels 673

hourly 167

house 636

how EXCLAMATIONS 300, 317, 465, 467, 528, 696; QUESTIONS 215, 335, 343, 465, 536, 541

however 212, 361, 368, 463, 713

human nouns 106

hundred 604

hurt 138, 551

hypothesis 27482

hypothetical clause 2758

HYPOTHETICAL CONDITION 207

hypothetical meaning 207, 2758

I 97, 377, 619–20

idea 646

i.e. 358

if advice 335; conditional 144, 207, 209, 275, 277, 366; INDIRECT yes-no QUESTIONS 541, 591; INTERROGATIVE 536; SUBORDINATION 360, 713; SUBSTITUTION 387

if (at least) 213

if only 276, 314, 322

if … then 716

ill 442

imagine 136, 139, 728, 733

IMPERATIVES 575; seeCOMMANDS

<impersonal> style 50, 55, 293, 307, 616

important 4389

impossible 288

improbable 292

in 437, 657; place 1758, 1801, 183, 191; time 129, 1524, 158

in-TYPE PREPOSITIONS 171, 1758, 1801, 183

in addition (to) 234

in all 357

in and out 189

in any case 214, 356

in case (of) 203, 208, 715

in comparison with 658

in fact 23, 356, 463

in front (of) 1845, 658

in … manner/way 195

in order that/to 203, 714

in other words 359

in particular 472

in relation to 658

in short 357

in spite of 212

in that 714

in that case 206

INANIMATE OBJECTS 945

inasmuch as 715

incidentally 354

inclusive meaning 749

INCLUSIVE we 97

incredibly 317

indeed 23, 301, 463

INDEFINITE ARTICLE 82, 93, 473–6

indefinite frequency 166, 458

indefinite use of AMOUNT WORDS 73

INDEPENDENT CLAUSE, seeFINITE CLAUSE

INDIRECT IMPERATIVE, seeCOMMANDS

INDIRECT OBJECT 432, 608

INDIRECT QUESTION 25960

INDIRECT SPEECH 25660,3367

inevitably 288

INFINITIVE (CLAUSE) 279, 493, 738

influencing people 33040

inform 131, 731

<informal> English 459

Addition: for another three weeks 502; I’m not either 235; too, as well 234

Adverbs with adjective form: buy cheap, get rich quick 447

Appearance: It looks like he’s ill 296

Changing the subject: by the way 354

Commands: Now somebody open this door 498

Comparison: Is he that tall? 228; better than me 506, 622

Concord: Neither of them have …, Has anybody brought their camera? 513

Contracted forms: Haven’t you …? 582, 610

Contrast: all the same 212; though 211

Degree: a lot, a bit 21719; not much of a dancer 215

Demonstrative + wh-clause: This is how you start the engine 423

Direction: up/down the street 189

Duration: I waited for ages 165

EMPHATIC TOPIC: Excellent food they serve here 412

Greetings: Hello 342

Hypothetical meaning: If I was younger277; I wish I was someone else 708

Introductory there: There’s only four bottles left 548

Inversion, subject-verb: Here comes McKenzie 416

Letters, beginning and ending: Dear George, Love from Janet 344

Manner, means and instrument: What did you write it with? 194; Pat cooks turkey the way my mother did 1956

NEGATIVE CONDITION: You’d better put your overcoat on, or367

NEGATIVE INTENSIFIERS: not a bit, not a thing 303

Negative purpose: He left early in case he203

Nominal -ing clauses: He was surprised at his family/them reacting so sharply 594

Nominal that-clauses with that omitted: I knew I was wrong 589

Obligation: I’ve got to 326; you’d better 328

Omitting the PREPOSITION: I met her the day after her birthday 155

PASSIVES, THE GET-PASSIVE: The boy got hurt 617

Permission: Is it all right if …? 325

Phrasal verbs: catch on, etc. 630–1

Place expressions: Over here is where I put the books 170; The guests were standing around the room 186; You don’t see many parrots about 192

Positive condition: You’d feel better, then 366

Pronouns, with indefinite reference: You never know …, They say98; Interrogative and relative pronouns: Who did the generals stay loyal to?, He couldn’t remember which shelf he kept the book on 539, 590, 659, 690–2

Quantifiers, amount words: a lot of (lots of) nurses 713; less accidents 526

QUESTIONS, WH-questions: Who did you send those books to, and why? 247, 539; Who with? 250

Regrets: I’m sorry I couldn’t345

Reinforcement: in any case, anyway 356

Requests: I wonder if334

Result: I ignored his objections, so he202

Species nouns: these kind of dogs 65

SUBSTITUTES: ‘Who wants to play?’ – ‘Me’ 383; do that (instead of do so) 385; You can borrow my pen, if you want 388

UNLINKED CLAUSES 374

information 678, 597

information 24097, 395409

-ing CLAUSE 309, 373, 3923, 493, 594, 618, 643

-ing FORM (PARTICIPLE) 422, 444, 493, 573–4, 578, 643, 666, 738

ingredient 109

inserts 23

inside 177

insist 282, 324, 706, 724–5

insistence 324

insofar as 715

instead of 310, 658

institutional use of the 86

instrument 194, 197, 453, 460, 600

intend 323, 706, 725

intensification of NEGATIVES 303; of QUESTIONS 302

INTENSIFYING ADVERBS and MODIFIERS 301

intention 706

intention 141, 282, 323

interactional signals 23

interactive uses of English 20

interested 437

INTERJECTION 299, 745

INTERROGATIVE ADVERB 541; CONJUNCTION 541; DETERMINER 538–9; PRONOUN 536–40; SUBCLAUSE 590–4; WORD 536–41

into 176, 180, 187, 657

intonation 3342, 3968

INTRANSITIVE VERB 198, 4334, 489, 734

introductions 342

INTRODUCTORY-it 283, 419, 4245, 4389, 542–6

INTRODUCTORY-there 416, 547–9

INVERSION 235, 278, 41517, 585, 612, 712

invitations 348

invite336

involve(d) 137, 443

inward(s) 192

IRREGULAR PLURAL 636–40

IRREGULAR VERBS 550–72

it, its FORMS 619–20; SUBSTITUTE 945, 376, 385, 389, 523, 529, 544; see alsoINTRODUCTORY-it

itself 619

it-TYPE CLEFT SENTENCE 41922, 496

jeans 600

job 66

judge 733

just 159, 237, 452

keep 555, 723, 733

kilo 64

kilometre || kilometer 193

kind (of) 19, 65

kindly 334

kneel 555

knife 636

knit 551

know 136, 239, 279, 287, 294, 386, 546, 566, 726

knowledge 597

lakes 670

last(ly) 155, 355, 525, 645

late(ly) 129, 159, 165, 441, 445

later 1589

lay 178, 562

lead 201, 554

leaf 636

lean 555

leap 555

learn 239, 552, 722, 726

least 227, 503–4, 676

leave 555, 728, 733

lend 553, 730

length (of) 63

less comparison 225, 2323, 503–4, 507; DETERMINER 526; QUANTIFIER 73, 676

let, let’s 97, 322, 325, 335, 498, 551, 727

letters 344

levels of usage 4555

libraries 673

lie 416, 549, 571, 719

life 636

light 562

like CONJUNCTION 713; PREPOSITION 1956, 627, 712; VERB 136, 309, 31516, 322, 347, 722–3, 728–9

likelihood 28392

likely 292

liking 309

LIMIT WORDS 216, 218, 222

limited duration 119, 126, 132

line 173

linguistics 598

LINKING CONSTRUCTIONS 36070

LINKING SIGNALS 3529, 398

LINKING VERB 489, 491, 718–20

listen 139

listing 355

liter 64

literally 301

<literary> language 54, 147, 278, 416, 549, 554

litre 64

little, a little 71, 73, 81, 217, 221, 417, 467, 503–4, 526, 584, 653

’ll 483

load (of) 63

loaf 66, 636

loathe 309

logical necessity 28890

long 445, 722

look 135, 139, 296, 313, 442, 446, 491, 719–20

lose 559

lot, a lot, lots 47, 713, 81, 217, 219, 527

loud(ly) 447

love 136, 309, 315, 346, 746; = zero 603, 722–3, 728

luck 346

luckily 308, 463

lump (of) 63

lunch 475

-ly ADVERBS 445, 464

madam 344, 34950

magazines 674

MAIN CLAUSE 141, 495, 709–10

MAIN FOCUS 424

MAIN INFORMATION 4057

MAIN VERBS 573–8, 735, 744

mainly 472

MAJOR WORD-CLASSES 744

majority 71, 510

make 201, 562, 727, 730, 733

make (of) 65

male 94, 96, 529

man 637

MANDATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 706–7

manner 195

manner 1946, 453, 460, 647

many 47, 713, 801, 167, 504, 525–6, 676, 678

MASCULINE, seemale’, ‘GENDER

MASS NOUNS 62, 106, 522–4, 597

material 57, 109

mathematics 598

matter 137; no matter wh- 214

may 483; permission 325; possibility 53, 2845; prohibition 329; REPORTED COMMANDS 337

maybe 23, 284

me 97, 620

meals 475

mean 136, 323, 555

means 194, 197, 373, 453, 460

means of transport 475

meanwhile 360

measles 598

MEASURE NOUNS 64, 69

media 639

meet 555

MENTAL ACTIVITY VERBS 139

merely 237

metre|| meter 193

midnight 475

MID-POSITION 451

might 483; permission 325; possibility 53, 2846; suggestion 335

mile 193

million 604

mind 325, 339, 723, 728

mine 620, 623–5

MINOR WORD-CLASSES 745

minority 71, 510

minus 606

miss 344, 350

MODAL AUXILIARIES 283, 483–5, 736

MODAL VERB combination 739

MODIFIERS 464–8, 596

moment, for the 165

MOMENTARY EVENT VERBS 133

money 597

monthly 167

MOOD 298350

more 71, 233, 500–4, 526, 676

morethan 226, 232, 506–7

moreover 355, 360, 463

most comparison 500–4; frequency 167; QUANTIFIER 71, 73, 80, 676, 678

motion 18790

mountains 670

mouse 637

move 706, 725

mow 563

much ADVERB 467; comparison 503–4; degree 215, 217, 21920, 459; DETERMINER 523; QUANTIFIER 713, 801, 676

much as 211

mumps 598

museums 673

music 597

must 483; COMMANDS 330, 337; indirect speech 258; necessity 28892; obligation 3267; mustn’t 329

my 97, 522–3, 620, 623–5

myself 619, 626–8

namely 358

names 667–74

national varieties 44

nationality words 579–80

naturally 32, 462

naught 603

near future 143

nearly 166, 218, 222, 459, 466

necessarily 283, 2889

necessity 28890

need 289, 3278, 483–4, 722, 729

NEGATION 303, 417, 581–7, 662

NEGATION with not 581–2, 742

negative

attitude 221

bias 243

COMMAND 497

condition 209, 367

DETERMINER 583

INTENSIFIER 303

PRONOUN 583

QUESTION 246

SENTENCE 2613, 611

WORD 417

neither addition 235; CONCORD 513; DETERMINER 523; NEGATION 583–4; QUANTIFIER 379, 676

neither … nor 520, 584

NEUTER seeNON-PERSONAL’, ‘INANIMATE

neutral future of prediction 141

neutrality 279

never 125, 166, 303, 417, 452, 458, 584

nevertheless 212, 361

NEW INFORMATION 402

news 689, 598, 646

newspapers 674

next 155, 159, 355, 525, 645

nice 301

night 157, 475

nil 603, 606

no CONCORD 513; denial 2613; DETERMINER 523; inversion 417; negation 583; offers 347; QUANTIFIER 73, 801, 676–8

no matter wh- 214

no one 81, 378, 583, 679

no sooner … than 716

nobody 81, 583, 679

NOMINAL

CLAUSE 495, 508, 588–94, 720

-ing CLAUSE 594

RELATIVE CLAUSE 592

that-CLAUSE 589

to-INFINITIVE CLAUSE 593

wh-CLAUSE 590

NON-COUNT NOUNS, seeMASS NOUNS

NON-DEFINING, seeNON-RESTRICTIVE

NON-FINITE CLAUSE 3923, 486, 492–3, 641, 643–5, 711

NON-FINITE VERB PHRASE 128, 737–8

non-interactive uses of English 20

NON-PERSONAL 529

NON-RESTRICTIVE ADJECTIVE 112

non-restrictive meaning 11011

NON-RESTRICTIVE MODIFIER 398

NON-RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSE 111, 398, 693

none 70, 72, 801, 379, 513, 583, 676, 678

noon 475

nor 235, 417

norm 230

normally 166, 458

not 2613, 267, 303, 386, 417, 581–2, 586–7, 611

not … but 269

not only … (but) 234, 369

notably 472

nothing 81, 261, 583, 679; = nil 603, 606

notice 726

NOTIONAL CONCORD 510

notwithstanding 212

nought 603

NOUN 5769, 595–6, 744

as PREMODIFIER 650

in singular and in plural 597–601

of measure 64

NOUN PHRASE 57, 508, 595–6

now 100, 159, 353

now (that) 160, 205, 714

now and then 166

nowadays 159

nowhere 2613, 584

NUCLEUS 33, 36

NUMBER 527, 597–601, 619–20

number, a number (of) 71, 73, 511, 527

NUMERAL 602–7, 638

oats 601

OBJECT 57, 4312, 487–9, 608

OBJECT COMPLEMENT 431, 489

OBJECTIVE (CASE) 594, 622, 687

obligation 3268,336

obvious(ly) 23, 32, 294, 463

occasion 155, 168

occasional(ly) 81, 166, 441, 458

odd 438

odds 601

of 657; COMPLEMENT of ADJECTIVE 306, 437; GENITIVE relation 1067, 531; material 109; NOUN relations 601, 635, 1023; subject matter 239

of course 23, 463

off 1734, 192, 657

offer 722, 730

offers 347

officially 463

often 81, 166, 169

OK 23, 333

old 448, 502, 653

omission 37594

in NON-FINITE CLAUSES 3923

in VERBLESS CLAUSES 394

of CONJUNCTIONS 519

of information 2535

of PREPOSITION 155

of that 589

through COORDINATION 391

on 657; COMPLEMENT OF ADJECTIVE 437; means 197; place 1734, 178, 183, 192; subject matter 239; time 129, 152, 154

on to 1734

on-TYPE PREPOSITIONS 171, 1734, 183

on account of 200, 204

on condition that 208

on earth 302

on top (of) 174, 1845, 658

once 144, 160, 167, 456, 713

one uses 680; INDEFINITE DETERMINER 676–7; NUMERAL 525, 604; PRONOUN 98, 626; SUBSTITUTE 37981; -one 467

one another 685

oneself 626

only 234, 2378, 417

open condition 207

OPEN WORD CLASSES 744

OPERATOR 2648, 300, 609–12

opinion 270, 2967

opposite 186

or 360, 367, 370, 512, 515–16 (or) else 367, 370

order 706, 727, 730

order 41034

ORDINAL NUMERAL 525, 602, 645

origin relation 105

other 379, 467, 525

otherwise 209, 236, 367, 370

ought to 258, 292, 3289, 335, 337, 483

ounce (of) 64

our, ours 97, 523, 620, 623–5

ourselves 619, 626–8

out 192

out of 658; cause 200; material 109; place 1757, 187, 1901

outside 177

outskirts 601

outward(s) 192

over 657; direction 18891; duration 157, 163; place 1734, 1845

overhead 185

owe 137, 730

own 137, 629

pack 60

pajamas 600

pants 600

PARALLEL PHRASES 448, 475

pardon 252, 345, 350

part (of) 61, 63

PART NOUNS 61

partial or qualified agreement 272

PARTICIPLE CLAUSE 205, 373, 392, 394

PARTICIPLE as PREMODIFIER 650

PARTICIPLE or ADJECTIVE 444

PARTICLE, seePREPOSITIONAL ADVERB

particularly 472

partition: part and whole 61

passage 188

PASSIVE 424, 430, 453, 490, 613–8, 659, 739, 741

past 188, 1901, 657

PAST

form 574

in the future 148

PARTICIPLE 574

PERFECT 127, 150, 741

PERFECT PROGRESSIVE 150, 741

PROGRESSIVE 150, 741

TENSE 1224, 129, 150, 740

time 12231, 150, 275, 741

pause 19

pay 562

people 599

per 167

perceiving, verbs of 135

PERFECT 1259, 150

ASPECT 122, 1258, 156, 164, 739, 741

INFINITIVE 128, 148

PROGRESSIVE 126, 150

perhaps 23, 2834

period 374

periodicals 674

permission 325,336

permit 325, 727

person 599

PERSONAL GENDER 529

PERSONAL NAMES 668

PERSONAL PRONOUNS 91, 948, 3767, 619–25

persuade336, 731

persuasion336

PERSUASIVE COMMAND 497

pervasive meaning 190

phonetic symbols 43

phonetics 598

PHRASAL VERBS 630–1, 633, 721

PHRASAL-PREPOSITIONAL VERBS 634

piece (of) 61, 63

pike 638

pile (of) 63

pincers 600

pint 64

pitch 36

pity, it’s a pity 281, 307, 314

place 178, 276

place 17093, 647

ADVERBIALS 454, 460

ADVERBS 192, 454

NOUNS (in the GENITIVE) 107

plaice 638

plain(ly) 294

plan 323

plan 1434

please 23, 248, 332, 3467, 34950

plenty of 527

pliers 600

plot 646

PLUPERFECT, seePAST PERFECT

PLURAL, compounds 635; irregular 636–40; names 671; plural only 599–601; regular 635, 664; singular and plural 58, 597; SUBSTITUTE 37980

plus 605

point 605

point 172

POINTER WORDS 91, 99101, 521

police 90, 599

policeman 599

police officer 599

<polite> language 15, 40, 512, 243, 248, 250, 270, 332, 334, 3478

polite question 248

pollution 597

poor, the 90, 448

position 1846

positive attitude 221

positive bias 210, 243

positive condition 366

possess 137

POSSESSIVE 523, 620, 623–5; see also GENITIVE

possibility 2846

possible 284, 438

possibly 284, 463

POSTMODIFIER 427, 596, 641–9

POSTMODIFYING ADJECTIVE 443

POSTPONEMENT 4249

potato 66

practically 218

PREDICATIVE ADJECTIVE 442

predictability 291

prediction 141, 291

prefer 136, 30910, 322, 722–3, 725, 728

preferably 308, 463

preference 310

premises 601

PREMODIFIER 21523, 596, 650–3

PREPOSITION 17191, 632–4, 657–9, 745

PREPOSITION, omission of 155, 306, 655

PREPOSITIONAL

ADVERB 35, 660

COMPLEMENT 508

OBJECT 632

PHRASE 4367, 641–2, 654–6

VERB 618, 632–4

present 442–3

PRESENT

event 117

habit 118

PARTICIPLE 574

PERFECT 122, 125, 129, 741

PERFECT PROGRESSIVE 126, 150, 741

PROGRESSIVE 150, 741

state 116

TENSE 11621, 131, 150, 740

time 11621, 150, 741

PRESENT CONTINUOUS, seePRESENT PROGRESSIVE

presenting and focusing information 395409

presumably 296

presume 296

pretty 217

prevent 338, 699

previously 159

PRIMARY AUXILIARY VERBS 479–82, 736

prison 475

probability 292

probable, probably 23, 283, 292, 438

PROCESS VERBS 133

PRODUCTIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 706–7

programme 143

progress 67

PROGRESSIVE (ASPECT) 119, 132, 143; tenses 150, 156, 739–41; verbs not taking PROGRESSIVE 1339

prohibit 338

prohibition 329

promise 33940, 646, 722, 724, 730–31

promises 33940

PRONOUN, types and uses 661–2; 1ST and 2ND PERSON 97, 377; 3RD PERSON 946, 376; CONCORD 509; PERSONAL, POSSESSIVE and REFLEXIVE 619–29

pronunciation 30

pronunciation of endings 663–6

PROPER NOUN 913, 597–8, 667–74

proportion 233

proposal 706

propose 706, 725

prove 720

provided (that) 208, 714

providing (that) 714

proximity 511

public, the 90, 510

public institutions, facilities, etc. 673

public speaking 20

punctuation 32, 3967

purpose 203

put 178, 551

PUTATIVE should 2802, 337, 438

pyjamas 600

QUANTIFIERS 7081, 3789, 443, 526–7, 662, 675–80

quantity 7081

quarter(s) 61, 524, 601, 605–7

question-intonation 40, 244, 696

QUESTIONS 24052, 254, 25960, 281, 681–4, 696

quick(ly), quickest 447

quit 551

quite 81, 21518, 221, 249, 270, 440, 468, 524

radio 86

rarely 166, 169, 417, 458, 584

rather 81, 217, 2212, 310, 322, 359, 440, 459, 468, 524

rather than 310, 715

read 239, 554, 730

ready 442

really 23, 249, 301, 459, 463

reason 2046, 365, 3723, 394, 647

Received Pronunciation 43

recently 129, 159, 165, 456

RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS 685

recommend3367, 706, 725

recommendation 706

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS 376, 428, 497, 619–20, 626–8

reformulation 359

refuse 338, 597, 722

regard 346, 476

regret 314, 345

regrettably 308

REGULAR PLURALS 635

REGULAR VERBS 573–8

regularly 166, 458

reinforcement 356

relations between NOUNS 1029

relations between people 108

relationship, verbs referring to a 137

RELATIVE CLAUSE 111, 3712, 495, 659, 686–94

RELATIVE PRONOUNS 687–94

reluctant 699

remain 137, 719

remember 136, 139, 346, 722–3, 726

rend 553

repeated event 115

repetition 19, 121, 133, 222, 229, 2512, 300

reply 258, 646

REPORTED CLAUSE 256

REPORTED COMMANDS3368

REPORTED QUESTIONS 25960

REPORTED STATEMENTS 2568

REPORTING CLAUSE 256

request 706, 725

requests 3334,336

require 137, 326, 706, 725, 727

research 67

resemble 137

resent 728

responses 2402, 345

restaurants 673

restriction 237

RESTRICTIVE APPOSITION 471

restrictive meaning 11012

RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSE 111, 692

result 2012

result 202, 365

RESULTING LINKING VERBS 719

resulting place meaning 190

<rhetorical> language 54, 211, 303, 305, 413, 417, 585

RHETORICAL QUESTIONS 305

rhythm 34

rich, the 448

rickets 598

rid 551

ride 569

right 23, 249

ring 570

rise 549, 569

rising intonation 38, 40, 244, 682, 696

rivers 672

role 224

round 186, 188, 190, 746

round and round 189

RP (= Received Pronunciation) 43

rubbish 597

run 561

-s FORM 573–4, 576, 664

-s PLURAL, seeREGULAR PLURAL

sad 438

salmon 638

save 730

saw 563

say 258, 546, 562, 574, 724

scale of amount 801

SCALE WORDS 21617, 222

scales 600

scarcely 166, 223, 417, 459, 584

school 475

scissors 600

SCOPE OF NEGATION 261

seas 672

seasonal greetings 346

second(ly) 28, 355, 525, 602

SECOND PERSON PRONOUN 97, 377

see 135, 139, 571, 726, 728–9

seeing (that) 205

seek 557

seem 136, 296, 442, 544, 546, 719–20

seldom 166, 417, 458, 584

sell 560

semi-colon 374

SEMI-GIVEN TOPICS 414

send 553, 730

sensation, internal 138

SENTENCE 8, 695–6

ADVERBIAL 308, 352, 461–3

RELATIVE CLAUSE 694

series 60, 638

set 60, 551

several 712, 80, 379, 526, 676

sew 563

sex 946, 513

shake 568

shall, FORMS 483; future 141, 145, 150; insistence 324; intention 323; obligation 328; suggestion 335; wish 322

shame, it’s a shame 314

she 946, 376, 513, 529, 619–20, 622

shear 571

shears 600

shed 551

sheep 638

sheet (of) 63

shelf 636

shine 559

shingles 598

ships 95

shit 551

shoot 559

shopping 68

short(ly) 445

shorts 600

should, FORMS 258, 483; advice 335; hypothetical 2778; obligation 328; probability 292; prohibition 329; PUTATIVE 2802, 337, 438; wish 322

show 563, 730–1

shrink 570

shut 551

sick 442, 448

signposts 28, 352

silent pauses 19

SIMPLE PAST 122, 741

SIMPLE PREPOSITION 657

SIMPLE PRESENT 11618, 131, 144, 150, 741

SIMPLE SENTENCES 695

simply 237, 459

since 469, 657, 712–13, 746; ADVERB 159, 165; REASON CONJUNCTION 2045, 365, 394; TIME CONJUNCTION 164

sincerely 344

sing 570

SINGULAR NOUN ending in -s 598

SINGULAR NUMBER 58, 597

sink 570

sir 344, 34950

sit 562

slacks 600

slang 52

sleep 555

slide 562

slightly 217

sling 556

slink 556

slit 551

slogans 254

slow(ly) 447

smell 135, 139, 446, 552

so addition 235, 418; cause 206; degree 231, 429; EMPHATIC 300; proportion 233; result 202, 375; SUBSTITUTE 297, 3856

so … as 226, 716

so as to 715

so far as 715

so long as 208, 715

so (that) 2023, 231, 365, 716

some 167, 379, 474, 523, 676–8; see alsosome-WORDS

some-WORDS 70, 801, 167, 210, 243, 262, 529, 585, 679, 697–8

somebody, someone 81, 378, 679; see also ‘some-WORDS

somehow 697

something, seesome-WORDS

sometime 81, 697

sometimes 166, 169, 284, 458, 697

somewhat 81, 222, 697

somewhere 697; see alsosome-WORDS

soon 159

sorry 252, 314, 3456

sort (of) 19, 65

sound 67, 135, 719

sow 563

spare 730

speak 239, 564

speaker 97

species 65, 638

SPECIES NOUNS 65, 69

SPECIFIC REFERENCE 889, 579–80

speck (of) 63

speed 554

spell 552

spelling 30

spelling changes 30, 700–4

spend 162, 553

spill 552

spin 556

spirit(s) 601

spit 562

split 551

spoil 552

<spoken English> 1743

AUXILIARY VERBS, CONTRACTED FORMS: I’m, she’ll 478

COMMENT CLAUSES in end-position: She’s a designer, you see 23, 499

CONTRACTIONS: I’m, now’s, soup’ll 478

Discourse markers: I think, you see23, 499

EXCLAMATIONS: What a lovely dinner … 528, 696

GENITIVE, pronunciation of plural: nurses’ 530

Information structuring 471 (APPOSITION); 499 (COMMENT CLAUSES); 3978, 462–3 (SENTENCE ADVERBIALS)

INITIAL ELLIPSIS 25

Intonation: 3342; rising tone in questions 40, 244, 696

INVERSION, subject-verb: Here comes McKenzie 416

Making a new start: Well, we adopted it353

Phonetic symbols 43

sports scores 606

spread 551

spring 570

stairs 601

stand 178, 416, 549, 562; cannot stand 723

standard 224

state 11415, 130; (= country) 670

STATE VERBS 11415

STATEMENTS 240, 696

statistics 598

stay (linking verb) 719

steal 564

steps 601

stick 556

still 156, 212, 368, 698

sting 556

stink 570

stop 723, 728

straight 445

STRANDED PREPOSITION 632, 659, 688

strangely 308, 317, 463

street 670

STRESS 335, 300, 399401

stride 569

strike 556

string 556

strive 569

strong(ly) 445

SUBCLAUSE 495, 709–10, 717

SUBJECT 354, 487–8, 705

subject matter 239

subject names 598

SUBJECT-COMPLEMENT RELATION 104

SUBJECTIVE (CASE) 622, 687

SUBJECT-OPERATOR INVERSION 415, 417

SUBJECT-VERB CONCORD 509

SUBJECT-VERB INVERSION 41516

SUBJECT-VERB RELATION 104, 106

SUBJUNCTIVE 44, 2778, 282, 438, 706–8

SUBORDINATE CLAUSE, seeSUBCLAUSE

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS 712–16

SUBORDINATION 36070, 695, 709–17

subsequently 159

subsidiary information 4057

substances 57

SUBSTITUTES

for NOUNS and NOUN PHRASES 37682

for structures containing a VERB 3835

for that-CLAUSES 386

for to-INFINITIVE CLAUSES 388

for wh-CLAUSES 387

SUBSTITUTION 37594

such 300, 468, 524, 528

such … (that) 231, 714, 716

suggest 335, 337, 706–7, 724

suggestions 335

summary 357

sunrise 475

sunset 475

superficially 463

SUPERLATIVE 227, 500–4, 645

supernatural, the 448

superscripts 605

support 108

suppose 136, 276, 296, 386, 587, 724, 733

supposing (that) 714

sure 23, 249, 288, 2945, 546

surely 463

surface 174

surprise 317

surprised 281, 306, 317, 438, 655

surprising 317, 438; surprisingly 308, 317, 463

surroundings 601

swear 565

sweat 551

sweep 555

swell 563

swim 570

swing 556

<tactful> language 53, 139, 268, 316, 322, 325, 333, 335

TAG QUESTIONS 24, 245, 296, 585, 612, 684

take 162, 434, 568

talk 67

taste 135, 139, 446, 719

tea 66

teach 239, 557, 727, 730–1

team 60

tear 565

technically 463

telephone 86

television 86

tell 239, 279,336, 386, 560, 727

temperatures 606

temporarily 165

temporary

activity 132

habit 120

meaning 115

present 119

TENSE 11350, 740–1

<tentative> language 53, 139, 268, 277, 286, 312, 322, 335

terrible 222

terribly 301

terrific 301, 315

than 225, 228, 429, 502, 505–7

thank 23, 345, 347

thanks 601

thanks 345

that, CONJUNCTION 589, 646, 712–13; see alsothat-CLAUSE’; DEMONSTRATIVE (POINTER WORDS) 99101, 155, 423, 521, 523; RELATIVE 689, 691–2; SUBSTITUTE 228, 382, 385, 389

that-CLAUSE 144, 231, 2568, 279, 2813, 293, 297, 306, 337, 386, 436, 438, 491, 496, 499, 508, 589, 655, 706–7

that is (to say) 358

the 8290, 473, 522–3

GENERIC USE 8790

with ADJECTIVES 90

the … the 233, 716

theatres 673

their(s) 513, 523, 619–20, 623–5

them 620

themselves 376, 619–20, 626–8

then 100, 159, 364, 366, 519

theoretically 463

there 100, 171, 416, 469, 547–9

therefore 206, 365, 463

these 100, 521, 523

they 98, 376, 513, 619–20

thief 636

-thing 467

think 139, 239, 296, 316, 386, 557, 587, 724, 733

third 61, 524–5, 602

THIRD PERSON PRONOUN 946, 376

THIRD PERSON SINGULAR 574, 664

this 99101, 155, 389, 423, 521, 523

this morning, etc. 129

thoroughly 223, 459

those 100, 382, 521, 523, 592; see also ‘that

though 211, 361, 713

thought 67

thousand 604

threats 33940

through 657; cause 200; means 197; pervasive 190; place, direction 1746, 1878, 190; time 163

throughout 190

throw 182, 566, 730

thrust 551

thus 100, 206

tights 600

till 1634, 657, 712–13

time, it’s time276

time 11350, 394, 475, 607, 647

ADVERBIALS 144, 455–8, 460

DURATION ADVERBIALS 457

FREQUENCY ADVERBIALS 458

NOUNS (in the GENITIVE) 107

relationships 1567

time-when 15160, 364, 3723, 456, 460

times 167, 524, 605

times of the clock 607

titles 349

to, PREPOSITION 307, 657; ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENT 437, 439; INDIRECT OBJECT 191, 437, 608; place 180, 182; preferences 310; time 163; CONJUNCTION, seeto-INFINITIVE

to-INFINITIVE (CLAUSE) 203, 3067, 309,336, 388, 422, 436, 439, 493, 593, 618, 645–6, 655

to be sure 463

to begin with 355

toasts 346

today 129, 155, 159

tomorrow 155

TONE UNIT 33, 37, 3968, 462–3, 471, 499

TONES 3341

tongs 600

too addition 2345, 238; ADVERB 465; comparison 230, 232, 699; degree 217, 222, 429; some-WORD 697

tool 600

tooth 637

TOPIC 41014

totally 218

towards 187

town 475

towns 670

traffic 66

transcription 42

TRANSFERRED NEGATION 297, 587

TRANSITIVE VERB 434, 489, 721–6

transport 174, 475

trash 597

tread 571

tremendous 301

tribe 60

trouble 68

trousers 600

trout 638

truly 301

trunks 600

try 722

turn 719

turn-taking 22

tweezers 600

twice 167, 524

twilight 475

type (of) 65

ultimately 159

uncertain 295

uncertainty 295

UNCOUNTABLES, seeMASS NOUNS

under 1845, 191, 657

underneath 1845, 1878

understand 136, 562

unemployed, the 90, 448

unfortunately 314, 463

UNIQUE USE of the 83

UNIT NOUNS 61, 63, 69

United Nations, the 598

United States of America, the 598

university 475

unless 144, 209, 367, 713

unlikely 292

UNLINKED CLAUSES 374

unsure 295

until 144, 1634, 657, 712–13

up 18992, 657

up and down 189

up to 129, 163, 658

upward(s) 192

urge 706, 725, 727

us 97, 498, 620

USA, the 598

used to 130, 483, 485

usually 166, 458

utterly 218, 221, 301

varieties of English 15, 556

variety (of) 65, 511

VERB PATTERNS 489, 718–34

VERB PHRASE 487–8, 735–42

VERB-OBJECT relation 104, 106

VERBLESS CLAUSE 373, 394, 486, 494, 711

VERBS 718–42; AUXILIARIES 477–85; IRREGULAR VERBS 550–72; MAIN VERBS 573–8; VERBS of being 137; of feeling 136; of internal sensation 138; of motion 416; of perceiving 135; of position 416; VERBS taking and not taking PROGRESSIVE 1339; see alsoTENSE’, ‘ASPECT

very 81, 21517, 21920, 222, 224, 3001, 440, 444

very much 81, 459

very own 629

viewpoint 190, 224, 230

virtually 218

viz 358

VOCATIVES 34950, 398

VOICE, seePASSIVE

VOICE-FILLED PAUSES 19

volition 31924

volume 1768

vote 282, 706, 733

wake 564

want 136, 139, 321, 388, 722, 727, 729

warn 33940, 731

warnings 33940

waste 597

way 193, 1956, 224; by the way 354

we 97, 619–20

wear 565

weather 343

weave 564

wed 551

weekend 154, 163

weekly 167, 458

weep 555

welcome 345

well 23, 353, 442, 446, 453, 503

were-SUBJUNCTIVE 2778, 708

wet 551

wh-CLAUSE 25960, 279, 387, 423, 508, 590, 654–5, 659

wh-DETERMINER 523

wh-ECHO QUESTION 251

wh-QUESTION 2412, 247, 259, 302, 385, 536, 612, 659, 683

wh-RELATIVE PRONOUN 592, 690

wh-TYPE CLEFT SENTENCE 4202, 496

wh-WORD 247, 25960, 536–41, 590, 592, 683, 712

what ADVERB 465–468; DETERMINER 523–4; EXCLAMATION 300, 528, 696; INTERROGATIVE 536–40; QUESTIONS 250, 252; suggestions 335

what(ever) 214, 282, 303, 523

what is more 3556, 369

when 144, 160, 250, 360, 536, 541

when(ever) 713

where 250, 467, 536, 541; -where 467

where(ever) 214, 302, 713

whereas 211, 713

whereby 713

whereupon 713

whether 25960, 279, 387, 536, 541, 591

whether … or 214, 394, 591, 716

which 250, 529, 536–40, 689–90

which(ever) 523

while 160, 164, 211, 713; for a while 81, 165

whilst 713

who 48, 250, 421, 467, 529, 536–9, 592, 689–90

whoever 214, 302, 592

whom 48, 250, 421, 536–9, 689–90

whose 421, 523, 536–9, 689–90

why 250, 332, 335, 536, 541

wife 636

will 483; COMMANDS, requests 333; future 141, 145, 148, 150, 330; insistence 324; intention 323; prediction, predictability 2912

willingness 320

win 556

wind 558

wisely 308

wish 136, 314, 321, 344, 346, 608

wish 3212

with 103, 1089, 195, 197, 199, 306, 4378, 453, 657

within 153, 177

without 108, 197, 657, 699

wolf 636

woman 635, 637

wonder 334

won’t 320, 332, 483

wood 66

WORD-CLASSES 743–6

word-order 41032, 450–63, 652–3

work 66, 689

worried 318

worry 306, 318, 437

worse, worst 502–3

would 483; future in the past 147; habit 130; hypothesis 2756; invitations 348; requests 3334; willingness 320

would like 322, 348

would prefer 310, 322

would rather 310, 322

wring 556

write 239, 569, 730–1

<written> English 1720, 55

CLEFT SENTENCES: It was in the north of England, not in London, that41923

CONCORD: Neither of them has … 513

Explanation: e.g., i.e., viz. 358

GENITIVE 530

Listing and adding: firstly, to conclude 355

Main and subsidiary information: focus, weight, topic 4079, 414

PARTICIPLE AND VERBLESS CLAUSES: Cleared, the site will be very valuable 373, 3924

PERSONAL PRONOUN substituting for a following noun phrase: As soon as it had refuelled, the plane took off 621

Punctuation 3967, 462–3, 471, 519

Spelling changes: lady ~ ladies, die ~ dying 700–4

SUBJUNCTIVE: Public opinion demanded that an inquiry be held 706

wrong 439, 445

yard (of) 64

yearly 167

years 607

yes 23, 249, 347

yes-no QUESTION 40, 2413, 259, 304, 611–12, 682, 742

yesterday 129, 155

yet 125, 156, 210, 212, 262, 3601, 462, 519, 697

you, your, yours 978, 331, 337, 497, 514, 523, 619–20, 623–5

young, the young 90, 448, 653

yours faithfully (sincerely) 344

yourself, yourselves 331, 497, 619, 626–8

zero 602–3, 606

ZERO 747; ZERO ARTICLE 474, 523; ZERO PLURAL 638; ZERO RELATIVE PRONOUN 689, 691